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"eps tan’ eee f- nha in gg BE a Bi iD 0S ag ,S 1 eg pe ase ae ase’ 8%, secye® BS: aasiugee © . 8 86 x a. @ sore : DAAC 25 ga WORE es = me a6 «: ser @ Ae J as = Perry eo? ey kt ge SS DORLING KINDERSLEY Senior Art Editor Senior Editors Ina Stradins Angeles Gavira Guerrero, Peter Frances, Project Art Editors /27et Mohun Paul Drislane, Alison Gardner, Anna Hall, Francis Wong Project Editors Lara Maiklem, Ruth O’Rourke-Jones, * Peter Preston, David Summers Designers Riccie Janus, Fiona Macdonald, Duncan Turner Editors Corinne Masciocchi, Lizzie Munsey, Martyn Page, Laura Palosuo, Gill Pitts, Steve Setford, Nikki Simms, Alison Sturgeon, Miezan van Zyl, Laura Wheadon, Victoria Wiggins Production Editor Ben Marcus Senior Production Controller Mandy Inness Editorial Assitant ; Sam Prid Jacket Designers act Mark Cavanagh Indexer Hil i US Editors 12 Picture Researchers Ria Jones, Liz Moore Jill Hamilton, Christine Heilman, Margaret Parish Cartographer E Creative Technical Support Encompass Graphics Limited Adam Brackenbury Senior Managing Art Editor Michelle Baxter : Art Director ~ “Phil Ormerod Managing Editor Sarah Larter Publisher Jonathan Metcalf _ DKINDIA Design Manager inesh Talapatra - Managing Editor Rohan Sinha s Senior Editor « Soma B. Chowdhury Editor . Rahul Ganguly Assistant Editors Sudeshna: Dasgupta, Himanshi Sharma: DTP Manager — ‘Balwant Singh DTP Designe! a, Arjinder. Singh, Rajesh'Singh i. Tanveer Abbas Zaidi, kar Prasad” Penguin Random House SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Project Coordinator Ellen Nanney First American Edition, 2011 Published in the United States by DK Publishing 375 Hudson Street New York, New York 10014 15 1412 1110987654321 001— 178147—Sep/2015 Copyright © 2011 Dorling Kindersley Limited A Penguin Random House Company All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means \ (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the above publisher of this book. Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-1-4654-4248-2 DK books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk for sales promotions, premiums, fund-raising, or educational use. For details, contact: DK Publishing Special Markets, 375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014 or SpecialSales@dk.com, Color reproduction by Alta Images, London Printed in Hong Kong Discover more at www.dk.com HUMAN ORIGINS Dr. Fiona Coward Research Fellow at Royal Holloway University of London; contributed to DK’s Prehistoric. Additional text by Dr. Jane McIntosh EARLY CIVILIZATIONS Dr. Jen Green Author of over 250 books on a range of subjects from history to nature. Additional text by Dr. Jane McIntosh THE CLASSICAL AGE Philip Parker Historian and writer; books include The Empire Stops Here and DK Eyewitness Companion to World History. CONSULTANT Sn Dr. Jane McIntosh 8mya-7008cE Senior Research Associate, Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Cambridge, UK Professor Neville Morley 7008cE-599CE Professor of Ancient History, School of Humanities, University of Bristol, UK Dr. Roger Collins 600-1449 Honorary Fellow, School of History, Classics, and Archaeology, University of Edinburgh, UK TRADE AND INVENTION Joel Levy Writer specializing in history and scientific history; books include Lost Cities and Lost Histories. REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION Thomas Cussans Author and contributor to The Times newspaper; previous titles for DK include Timelines of World History and History. Additional text by Frank Ritter THE AGE OF REVOLUTION Dr. Carrie Gibson Writer who has contributed to The Guardian and Observer newspapers; gained a doctorate in 18th- and 19th-century history from the University of Cambridge, UK. Dr. David Parrott 1450-1749 Fellow in History and University Lecture New College, University of Oxford, UK Dr. Michael Broers 1750-1913 Fellow and Tutor, Lady Margaret: Hall, University of Oxford, UK Professor Richard Overy 1914-present Professor of History, University of E TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS R.G. Grant History writer who has published more than 20 books, including Battle, Soldier, Flight, and History for DK. Sally Regan Contributor to several books for DK including History, World War II, and Science; award- winning documentary maker whose films include Shell Shock and Bomber Command for the UK's Channel 4. GLOSSARY Richard Beatty SMITHSONIAN. INSTITUTION Smithsonian contributors include historians id museum specialists from: National Air and Space Museum The. Smithsonian’ 's National Air and Space is one of the world’s most popular s. Its mission is to educate and isitors, by preserving and displaying eum of American History National Museum of dedicates its collections and - piring a broader understanding. ation and its many peoples. 8mya-3000BcE 010 HUMAN ORIGINS Features 014 Colonizing the Planet 020 Prehistoric Peoples Pree: 3000-700BceE 700BcE-599cE 600-1449 022 EARLY CIVILIZATIONS Features 028 The Story of Writing 032 Ancient Empires 038 Ancient Egypt 042 THE -CLASSICAL AGE Features 048 Ancient Greece 054 The Story of Metalworking 064 ‘The Story of Money 074 The Rise of the Roman Empire 084 Ancient Rome 096 Classical Trade 106 TRADE & INVENTION Features 122 The Vikings 134 The Islamic World 144 The Aztecs, Incas, and Maya 154 The Story of Printing < 1450-1749 1750-1913 1914-2011 164 REFORMATION & EXPLORATION Features 172 182 Voyages of Exploration The Story of Astronomy Edo Period Mughal Empire The Renaissance The Story of Arms and Armor The Rise and Fall of the Ottoman Empire The Story of Navigation The Story of Agriculture 294 THE AGE OF REVOLUTION Features 262 274 282 290 European Nation States The Story of Steam Power The Story of Medicine American Indians The Story of Electricity American Civil War The Qing Dynasty The Imperial World The Story of the Car 338 TECHNOLOGY & SUPERPOWERS Features 344 350 354 364 374 The Eu ropean Union, i Global Economy. The Great War Soviet Propaganda World War | The Story of Flight The Story of Communication War in Europe War in the Pacific World War II ‘The Space Race» End of Empire The Story of Genetics Collapse of the USSR 468 DIRECTORY Categories 468 478 480 Rulers and Leaders History in Figures Wars Explorers Inventions and Discoveries Philosophy and Religion Culture and Learning Disasters Foreword Like many people, my early enthusiasm for history focused on particular dates and events 1588 and the defeat of the Spanish Armada; the battle of Waterloo in 1815; the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Some had personal connections: July 1, 1916, when my grandfather, serving as an artilleryman, lost several of his closest friends on the first day of the Somme offensive From the earliest times, history was cast as a grand chronicle of events and actions, the work of often larger-than-life protagonists, and was intended to enthrall and capture the imagination in the same way as a great novel. But during the 20th century, academic historians grew skeptical about the “history of the event.” Most often the events were battles, treaties, and political struggles, a narrative that excluded the lives of the great majority of men, women, and children. In reaction to this, historians focused on cultural, social, and economic continuities, looking for their evidence in everyday objects, trading records, accounts of childhood and old age The result was certainly a richer and more diverse account of human experience, but one that often left little sense of change over time As the p constructed on a timeline does not ent book shows, history have to be a narrow account of war and conquest, treaties and treason All of these feature here, but so do the dates of intellectual and technological innovations, the creation of key works of art, crucial shifts in patterns of agriculture, Lost city of the Incas Perched 7,970 ft (2,4. 1] above in the Peruvian Andes, the Inca Machu Picchu was probably co the 15th century, and abandone exploration, and commerce. This is an exhilarating and comprehensive account of human creativity as much as its destructiveness, of discovery and understanding as well as natural disasters and human folly. Spectacularly illustrated and succinctly explained, key events in history from the first beginnings of agriculture to the most recent astrophysical discoveries are laid out along what is probably the most comprehensive timeline ever assembled No less exciting for me in helping to compose this book and to choose from all facets of human history to build up the timeline, is the contribution that History Year by Year makes to an understanding of global history. Throughout the book, events, discoveries, and achievements occurring in Europe and North America are set against the equally momentous and significant events in the Mideast and East Asia, India, Africa, or South America and the Pacific Rim. This is a history that stimulates awareness of a wider world by placing events from across that world side by side and reminding us that progress and discovery, feats of social organization, and challenges toa political status quo are no monopoly of the Western world, but as Likely to originate in India or Egypt as in France and Spain The design of this book offers a unique opportunity to appreciate a global history of mankind in all its facets. | hope that you enjoy reading History Year by Year and using it asa reference as much as we enjoyed planning and writing It DAVID PARROTT University of Oxford HUMAN ORIGINS MYA-3QQQBCE Our earliest ancestors lived in Africa almost aiaiie million years ago. Over seven million years later, we appeared and, developed the skills—including sophisticated toolmaking: . and agriculture—that allowed us to colonize the world. Me eR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HUMANS AND OTHER APES DNA and blood proteins suggest that our lineage separated from that of the chimpanzees between rs ago (MYA) specimens date to this time: Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7-6 mya), Orrorin 8 and 4 million ye Only a few fos THE TIME WHEN THE FIRST HUMAN ANCESTOR APPEARS tugenensis (6.1-5 yA), and two species of Ardipithecus, kadabba (5.8-5.2 mya) and YA}, While all s seem to have walked on two legs like us, ramidus (4.4 of these spec tis not certain r any were actual ors of humans Because species are constantly evolving, and individuals of those species can vary, it is difficult to tell SEVERAL DIFFERENT AUSTRALOPITHECINE species lived in Africa between 4.2 and 2 mya. Although they walked on two legs most of the time, they were rather small and apelike Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania is a site of great archaeological significance and is sometimes referred to as the “Cradle of Mankind.” At least two species of early hominins are associated with this area. and still lived partially in trees. Their brains were about the size of those of modern chimpanzees, but some australopithecines seem to have used tools. The earliest stone tools come from Ethiopia and date to 2.6 MYA, but bones with cut marks made by stone tools have been found associated with Australopithecus afarensis nearby, and date to 3.4 mya. The australopithecines descendants followed two distinct modes of life: members of the genus Paranthropus had huge jaws and big teeth for eating tough vegetable foods; meanwhile, Homo rudolfensis and H. habilis seem to have eaten more protein, using tools to get at the protein-rich marrow inside long-bones by scavenging from carnivore kills OLDOWAN TOOL (TOOLS ULTIMATELY, THE PARANTHROPINES’ WAY OF LIFE was unsuccessful and they became extinct after about 1.2 MYA, while their cousins Homo habilis and H. rudolfensis survived. These early Homo species were not very different from australopithecines. It was with Homo ergaster (1.8 mya) that our ancestors started to look much more familiar. H. ergaster was tall and slender, and may have been the first hominin [a term used to describe humans and their ancestors) without much body hair. Their brains were larger than those of their ancestors, and they lost the last of their adaptations to tree-climbing to become fully adapted to walking and running ACHEULEAN TOOL fre preser 1 and often poorly ved fossils which species they should be assigned to, or how the Lucy This unusually complete skeleton of Australopithecus afarensis, discovered in Kenya in 1974, was named after the Beatles’ song Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds. related to one another. these fossils do tell us 4 3 bout what the last common ancestor shared th ct was like. Many animal species use natural objects as tools, but the manufacture of stone tools is unique to hominins. The earliest are simply sharp flakes broken off stone cobbles by striking them with a “hammerstone.” These are known as “Oldowan” tools, after Olduvai Gorge, where they were first found. Later tools, such as Acheulean handaxes, required more skill. Our manufacture of tools might be one explanation for the evolution of the human brain. — NeKonso-Garduta Lake Turkana & Kobi Fora Dlorgesailie NOT LONG AFTER THE APPEARANCE of Homo ergaster, hominins expanded their range beyond Africa for the first time A species called H. georgicus appeared in Dmanisi, Georgia, by 1.7 mya. Another close relative of Homo ergaster, Homo erectus, lived in China and Indonesia perhaps not long afterward. Some archaeologists believe that earlier groups of hominins may also have left Africa, as some of the skulls from Dmanisi and from the much later site of Liang Bua in Flores, Indonesia, {currently known as Homo floresiensis| resemble those of Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis. Living farther north would have required a different way of life ~ Hexian Lantian’ #Yunaian lanjing iy Trini Sanbiiatygfe Mojokecto Ngandong KEY ® Site of fossil finds > More likely route ~» Less likely route Hominins beyond Africa Our earliest ancestors evolved in : Africa. Possible dispersal routes from Africa are shown on this map, : with dates referring to the earliest fossils known from each region to life in the African savanna. The climate was cooler and environments were more seasonal, with significant variation in food resources over the course of a year. Fewer edible plants meant that hominins would have had to rely more on harder-to-find and fiercely competed-for animal protein for food. They needed to move over greater distances and work together to share resources and information to survive in these regions. 1.6-0.35 mya ACHEULEAN HANDAXES made by Homo ergaster and H. erectus were produced across most of Africa and Eurasia, and demonstrate the ability to learn complex skills from one another and pass them down over generations. To make these tools, knappers had to think several steps ahead in order to select a suitable stone and to prepare and place each strike. Handaxes were used for a wide range of activities, including butchery, but they might also have been important for personal or group identity, demonstrating their makers’ strength and skill Australopithecines 28 cubic inches 461 cubic cm) Paranthropines 32 cubic inches 517 cubic cm) Homo habilis Homo rudolfensis 40 cubic inches 648 cubic cm) Homo erectus Homo ergaster 59 cubic inches “a 969 cubic cm) es arr While Homo Erectus continued to thrive in Asia, Homo antecessor had appeared as far west as northern Spain and Italy by 1.2Mya. Marks on their bones at the site of Atapuerca in Spain suggest they practiced cannibalism. However, these early colonists may not have thrived in these unfamiliar landscapes, as very few sites are known. By 600,000 years ago, anew hominin species, Homo heidelbergensis, had spread much more widely across Europe H. heidelbergensis seems to have been a good hunter, or at least a proficient scavenger. Homo heidelbergensis 73 cubic inches. (1,204 cubic cm) Homo neanderthalensis 87 cubic inches (1,426 cubic cm} y —"—s=) Homo sapiens ~~ 90 cubic inches (1,478 cubic cm) Humans have a disproportionately large brain for a primate of their size, but archaeologists disagree about how and why this expansion happened. Switching to fatty and calorific foods such as bone marrow and meat may have “powered” brain growth, and also demanded more complex tools and effective hunting and foraging skills. Social skills were also a part of this process, as increasing group cooperation and pair-bonding were necessary to sustain the longer periods of childhood that infants needed for their larger brains to develop. 350,000-160,000,a BY AROUND 350,000 YEARS AGO, while Homo erectus continued to hold sway over eastern Asia, Homo heidelbergensis in Europe and Western Asia had evolved into Homo neanderthalensis Neanderthals were stockier and stronger than modern humans, and their brains were as large or even larger, although shaped slightly differently. Neanderthals were almost certainly very accomplished hunters. They were also highly skilled at making stone tools and heavy thrusting spears with which they tackled even large and dangerous animal prey, such as horses and bison However, despite burying their dead—which may have indicated ceremonial practices or belief in an afterlife—Neanderthals do not seem to have created more than the most limited art or used any symbols, as all modern humans do. Whether or not they spoke ina similar way to modern humans is also difficult to establish. Although @ ALL LIVING HUMANS DESCENDED FROM COMMON ANCESTORS WHO LIVED AFRICA LESS THAN 200,000 YEARS AGO. 99 en Jay Gould, American paleontologist, from J Have Landed: The End of ning in Natural History, 2002 Burying the dead Neanderthals often disposed of their dead with care. Some were buried in graves, as here at Kebara Cave in Israel, which dates to 60,000 BCE. their throat and voice-box anatomy suggests that a Neanderthal language may have been limited compared to that of humans, they must have communicated in some fashion, perhaps by combining a less complex form of vocalization with expressive miming THE NUMBER OF YEARS THE NEANDERTHAL DOMINATED EUROPE AND WESTERN ASIA 8 mya—3000 sce | HUMAN ORIGINS COLONIZING THE PANEL Skeletal and DNA evidence suggests that our species, Homo sapiens, evolved fo WP atenes in Africa and then spread across the globe. The first traces of modern ) 4~> Se eAce humans beyond Africa come from fossils in Israel and possibly from stone Aue tools found in Arabia. They date to before 100,000 years ago. Meadowcroft y Homo sapiens colonization of the globe involved many stops, starts, and sometimes retreats, as well as waves of different groups of people in some areas. Homo sapiens may have moved into Eurasia f via the Mediterranean coast of western Asia, spreading into Western Europe by 35,000 years ago f (va). Archaeological evidence suggests that people may also have taken a “southern route” across Arabia into southern Asia. There may also have been movement eastward, perhaps much earlier, as stone tools have been found in India from 77,000YA and Malaysia from 70,000 YA. Some possible Homo sapiens finds from southern China are dated to 68,000 YA {Liujiang), and even 100,000YA (Zhirendong). However, these finds remain controversial, and most scholars favor later dates here. In Australia, widespread colonization probably did , not occur until 45,000 YA, though some sites have been dated to as early as 60,000YA. Farther north, Homo sapiens first spread across northern Eurasia around 35,000YA. However, they may have retreated during the last Ice Age, and not recolonized the i region until after 14,000-13,000 YA. Genetically, the North American colonists are likely to have originated in East Asia. They probably traveled across the plain of “Beringia”— now beneath the Bering Straits between Siberia and Alaska, but exposed by low sea levels at the height of the last Ice Age. Distinctive “Clovis” spear points [flaked on both sides) are found across North America around 12,000 Ya, so modern humans were i i widespread at that point, but earlier sites are also known, including South American j sites such as Monte Verde (15,500-15,000YA). a NORTH AMERICA Pedra Furada NEW ZEALAND Tracking language The spread of languages can en be tracked to reflect the movement of people. This map shows the spread of Austronesian speakers across Oceania. Earlier 6 re already present in reas. Benng Straits Pe nese ARE Nc COLONIZING THE PLANET | —Ushki Lake Tuluag Hill e (Sluiceway- Tuluag complex} KEY > General direction @Berelekh of Homo sapiens Yana around the world Site of early Homo sapiens YEARS AGO Kara-Bom e e Tianyuan 32,000 YEARS AGO 42,000 31,000 YEARS AGO YEARS AGO EUR ae Ole Pee E Trou Magrite Hohlenstein-Stadel @ Kostienki Vindija Cave 45, YEARS AGO @ Korolevo | e = Paviland Cave 2 Yamashita-Cho Kent's Cavern___—® Arcy-sur-Cure SaintCésairee istall6sko El Castillo_—_» ele Plage — Pestera cu Oage Cueva Morin 7,4 be SS Gato Pretoe 00 , oe ElPendo Years ago'\)\ Bacho 77,000-45,000 YEARS AGO a *, 7 . Kiro Liujiang @ O Gorham's Cave @: pee ae Temnata.@ Ucagizli Magara Phirendona) Jebel Irhoud @ papmenely eee giserani a jaizel - mw 100,000 Ext YEARS AGO Zz @ Jebel Faya Matenkupkum, Balof 2, @ Jwalapuram and Panakiwuk Kota Tampon de Caves Huon Peninsula INDIAN OCEAN 160,000 YEARS AGO Omo Kibish @ 1.7MYA Temperate grassland, mediterranean shrubland Malakunanja B Nawalabila |__~ Riwi and Carpenter's Gap__‘» Ngarrabulgan — TIME pase Puritjarra @, E> ~ 40,000vA 45,000 = Temperate forest, YEARS AGO SF Blombos Cave.e=® boreal forest, tundra Klasies ie 3 aS River Mouth TMYA Tropical and subtropical Upper Swan @ Aj e 2 dry broadleaf forest, savanna Ce. a ude Lair prings Going global Changing environments Skeletal and genetic evidence suggests that modern humans The ancient ancestors of modern humans originated in Africa and spread across the globe from there, evolved in the African tropics. Over time, as Lake Mungo @ as reflected on this map. This is called the “Out of Africa” human species evolved larger brains and theory. An alternative “multiregional” theory suggests that developed more advanced skills and behavior Kow Swamp...» Homo sapiens evolved simultaneously in many different parts they became better equipped to deal with the Willandra Lakes__-” of the world, from ancestors who had left Africa much earlier. challenges of new environments. a IN AFRICA, HOMININ FOSSILS gradually began to reveal the chara' stic skeletal traits of Homo sapiens from around ri 400,000 ya: smaller brow ridges, higher and rounder skulls, and chins. DNA analysis of living humans suggests that the common ancestor of all living humans [known as Mitochondrial Eve} lived in Africa around 200,000 vA. An Ethiopian fossil WHEN HOMO SAPIENS FIRST APPEARED almost skull from 160,000Ya is nin shape; this has been aS a subspecies of modern humans, Homo sapiens vans moved north inte tern Asia some time before 00 YA, but they do not seem >d there for long ed whe her uniquely ors such as nan be language and the ability to use symbols evolved before or after nodern human anatomy. One theory is that such behaviors became vital only after 74,000va, hen the massive eruption of Mount Toba in Indonesia triggered bal “volcanic winter.” DNA s that many Jied out at this - These cave paintings from Lascaux, France, date to around 17,000 years ago. Most cave paintings are from a similar period, though some were created by the earliest Homo sapiens to arrive in western Europe, around 32,000 years ago. Prepared core and flake Neanderthals and other hominins prepared ¢ one core before striking off a sharp flake to use In Europe this technology is known as the “Mousterian. time and, in such harsh conditions, complex modern language and symbolism would have allowed groups to exchange resources and information with one another, which could have made the difference between survival and extinction. However, others argue that the impact of the eruption of Mount Toba has been exaggerated, and that archaeology in Africa suggests complex hunting practices and the development of symbolism even before this. It is not clear when modern humans first spread into Eurasia Some researchers argue they left Arabia before 74,000 ya. Others say the major migration occurred later, 50,000 ya, and via western Asia, after developing a new form of stone-tool technology that involved producing long, thin flint blades,” which probably formed part of composite tools 45,000-35,000 va HUMANS SPREAD RAPIDLY across Europe and Asia. In Europe, modern humans appeared in Turkey from 40,000, and in western Europe shortly afterward. In Asia, fossils of Homo sapiens in Indonesia and China date to at least 42,000 ya, and the sea crossing to Australia occurred before 45,000yA. These dates suggest that the earliest modern humans in Asia may have encountered groups of Homo erectus, who survived in China until at least 40,000 years ago. In Indonesia the picture was even more complicated Fossils found on the island of HOMO SAPIENS MODERN HUMANS AND NEANDERTHALS NEANDERTHAL Flores date to less than 38,000 years ago, and seem to represent specialized, extremely small forms of Homo erectus, or perhaps even the descendants of earlier hominins, More evidence comes from Denisova Cave in Russia—DNA analysis of bones found here reveals genetic material distinct from that of both modern humans and Neanderthals, dated to around 40,000vA. It seems increasingly likely that several groups descended from hominins who left Africa before Homo sapiens may have coexisted in Eurasia at this time Neanderthal skulls [right] were about the same size as anatomically modern human skulls (left), but they had lower, more sloping foreheads and a double arch of bone over their eyes that created heavy brow ridges. Their lower faces jutted out and they did not have chins. Overall, Neanderthal skeletons reveal that they were much more muscular than modern humans, as well as being extremely physically active and well-adapted to cold climates 46TH NEANDERTHALS WERE NOT APE-MEN... THEY WERE AS HUMAN AS US, BUT THEY REPRESENTED A DIFFERENT BRAND OF HUMANITY. 99 Chris Stringer and Clive Gamble, from In Search of the Neanderthals, 1993 [ey IN EUROPE, MODERN HUMANS overlapped with Neanderthals, who survived until at least 30,000 years ago. How and why Neanderthals died out is one of the most intensely debated topics in archaeology. There is little evidence of violent interactions between the species, and comparison of DNA increasingly suggests that there may have been some exchange of mating partners between the groups Early humans may have outcompeted their relatives for food and raw materials in the rapidly changing environmental conditions. Environments at the time were highly unstable, so even a slight increase in competition could have been significant, However, populations were small and spread out, and coexisted for up to 10,000 years in Europe, and more than 30,000 wo in Indonesia. Alternatively, the exchange of resources and information allowed by modern humans’ language and symbol use, and their planned and flexible technologies made Homo sapiens better able to withstand climatic downturns than Neanderthals Others believe that these behaviors were not unique to modern humans. Hominins would have needed to use rafts or boats to reach the island of ,000-21,000 va a V 21,0 000 va » ATLANTIC ~~ OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN pA THE MAXIMUM EXTENT OF THE LAST ICE AGE European climates after 23,000.8ceE grew steadily cooler, and during the “Last Glacial Maximum” (21,000-18,000ya), ice caps covered most of northern Europe. Farther south, huge areas of grassland with few trees offered good hunting for groups of humans able to survive the cold. te Flores in Indonesia by 800,000 ya Some late Neanderthal sites also contain elements of technologies normally associated with Homo sapiens, although it is possible that Neanderthals may have copied, traded with, or even stolen from modern humans. A combination of environmental unrest and increased competition is currently considered to be the most likely explanation for Neanderthal extinction THE “GRAVETTIAN” CULTURE OF Europe and Russia (28,000- 21,000 YA) is known for its elaborate sites, which often have complex structures and burials, as well as large amounts of shell jewelry, and sculpted bone and antler. Also found at Gravettian sites are some of the earliest known clay objects, including some of the famous “Venus” figurines. These may have been fertility or religious charms, or part of a system of exchange between social networks across the region as the Ice Age intensified. “Venus” statuette This figurine from Willendorf, Austria depicts a stylized pregnant or obese female KEY figure. *® Neanderthal sites ® Modern human sites Neanderthal and human ranges Modern humans and Neanderthals coexisted for several thousand years. Sites appear to show evidence of interaction between the groups. exaggerated ff belly _@ AT THE HEIGHT OF THE GLACIAL Maximum, when the ice caps were at their maximum extent, people living in more northerly and mountainous areas retreated to “refuge” areas such as—in Europe—northern Spain and southwest France, where this period is known as the “Solutrean.” Globally, many groups probably died out, but some held on in more sheltered regions. To survive the harsh conditions, much time and effort was invested in hunting Weapons include beautifully worked points known as ‘leaf- points.” Although little evidence survives beyond finely worked bone needles, people probably developed sophisticated clothing to keep them warm. Perhaps more importantly, hunters would have worked hard to predict and intercept the movements of herds of large animals, ensuring the hunting success that was the difference between life and death 18,000-12,000 eae , IN EUROPE, SOPHISTICATED BONE and antler points, needles, and harpoons characterize the “Magdalenian” technologies that were used to hunt a wide range of species, especially reindeer. The Magdalenian (18,000- 12,000 ya) is famous for its beautiful art objects, engravings, and cave paintings. There are many theories about what these mean and why they were produced. As most depict animals that were hunted, the paintings may represent a magical means of ensuring hunting success, or show information about the best ways to hunt different species Paintings of imaginary half-human, half-animal creatures and the inaccessibility of some cave art suggest that painting may have been a magical or ritual activity, perhaps practiced by shamans or during initiation or religious ceremonies. Alternatively, paintings and art objects may have helped establish group identities and territories, as the number of archaeological sites in this period suggests that populations were growing, and competition for rich and localized resources may have been intensifying A rise in temperature led to the retreat of the ice sheets that had covered northern Europe, and these areas were rapidly recolonized, with groups expanding as far north as Siberia by around 14,000-13,000 ya. Some groups later moved on into Alaska and the Americas. Farther east, in China and in the Jomon culture of Japan, some of the first pots manufactured from clay appeared between 18,000 and 15,000ya. Altamira cave paintings This Paleolithic cave painting of bison was discovered at the Altamira cave site in Spain 10,000-3000 sce Megalithic (large stone] architecture Population density AS STEEPLY RISING TEMPERATURES betweer )0 and 10,800 BcE melted the northern ice sheets. jlobal sea levels rose, lake formed { rainfall increased spread of forests and grasslands ing sea levels were rich sources of aquatic foods, a Grasslands arge herds of animal argins provided ibundant plant food Most hunter-gatherers moved seasonally t and game exploit the f different areas, but red places such 4 r estuaries could support pre yea und. One such astal Peru and Chile 1 Humboldt current ally rich fisherie rw’ Oo was used for monumental tombs in Neolithic Europe. Developments around 3300 ce included the construction of stone circles, such as this example at Castlerigg in northern England. Settled communities lived here by 7000BCcE, including the Chinchorro, who created the world’s first mummies (see panel, opposite) Another area with favorable condition was West Asia. Here vegetation included wild cereals that could be stored, sustaining communities throughout the year when upplemented by other wild foods such a gazelle. A period of cold, arid conditions from 10,800 to 9400 BcE led toa steep decline in the availability of wild ils. This West Asian villager prompted some to turn to cultivation, planting cereal Agriculture began in many parts of the world at different times, using local resource Domesticated plants and animal pread by trade between neighboring groups and when farming communities colonized new areas, Aqriculture was not a discovery: hunter-gatherers had a deep knowledge of the plants and inimals on which they depended, and often took actions to increase x$ > = aes iS ot fae SR ate PF pe ao co” CS eg? D gory { Ws sot or" , Paes 5 ot » o oo? AG « os e o productivity. Farming was therefore a choice that people made, increasing local productivity, often at the cost of increasing work and risk. Their reasons for farming may have included extending their period of residence ina settled village, providing extra food for feasting or to support a growing population, and boosting the supply of preferred or declining foodstuffs Cereals were common staples of early agriculture. Wheat and barley were domesticated in West Asia, spreading into North Africa, Europe, and Central and South Asia. Broomcorn and foxtail millet were domesticated in the Yellow River valley and rice in the Yangzi valley in China, from where they spread through East and Southeast Asia. In Africa, other millets and African rice were domesticated after 3000BcE. In the Americas, corn was the principal cereal However, although it was cultivated by 6000BcE, it was not until 2000 BCE that corn was sufficiently productive to support permanently settled villages. Legumes and vegetables were grown alongside cereals in many parts of the world Tubers, such as manioc and and treecrops were cultivated in moist tropical yam regions, beginning at an early date in the New Guinea highlands and the rainforests of Central America and northern South America Domestic sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle were raised across Eurasia and Africa, initially just for meat. However, in the Americas Lepinski Vir “fish god” Abundant fish supported a settled hunter-gatherer village on the Danube in Serbia. Its inhabitants carved fish-human sculptures, probably representing gods. only the Andes had animals suitable for domestication guineapigs, llamas, and alpacas Birds, particularly chickens, ducks, and turkeys, were also kept bone and antler lightened by scraping Star Carr deer cap This skull cap from a hunter- gatherer site in England may have been used in hunting rituals. by Old and New World farmers. By 50008CE cattle, sheep, and goats were raised for milk as well as meat, while cattle were used to pull plows, enabling people to cultivate much larger areas. Wool-bearing sheep were bred in West Asia in the 4th millennium BCE, and rapidly spread into Europe and Central Asia, The use of pack animals such as llamas and donkeys allowed long- distance transport Agriculture was more productive than foraging and could support larger communities. Settled life also encouraged population growth. Many early farming villages in West Asia grew to a considerable size. Most remarkable was Catalhoyiik in Turkey, occupied around 7400- 6200 BCE, which housed as many as 8,000 people, Its tightly packed houses were entered from the roof by ladders, and were decorated with paintings and 44 THE NEOLITHIC WAS... A POINT IN A CONTINUOUS STORY OF GREATER ECONOMIC CONTROL OVER RESOURCES.. SCAVENGING TO.. _ FROM FARMING. 99 Clive Gamble, from Origins and revolutions: human identity in earliest prehistory, 2007 modeled animal heads After 7000 8cE farmers spread from Turkey into southeast and central Europe, while Mediterranean hunter-gatherers gradually turned to agriculture, using imported West Asian crops and animals, By 3500 BCE most of Europe had adopted farming Megaliths—stone chambered tombs of which a wide variety were built, often with earthen mounds— were constructed in western and northern Europe from the early 5th Most housed the bones of a number of individuals. millennium BCE ASIA Benita EUROPE «A000 BCE 7000 Bce & 8000 BCE 92500 ace 9000 ace f000 CE 7% 4500 Bc! 5 500 BCI 100 BCE Boov0 BoE 7c etnies $800 be 4000 ace /2500 ace 7000 sce A SOUTH AFRICA @7000 BCE 6000 BCE ‘AMERICA 5000 BCE AUSTRALASIA KEY A Livestock A» Cereals The spread of agriculture Other @ Areas with agriculture Humans began to cultivate plants and manage animals independently, in different areas at different times, across the world. Native {naturally occurring pure) copper and gold were being shaped into small objects by cold hammering before 8000BCE in West Asia. Around 7000 BCE, ores were smelted here to extract metal and by 6000BcE copper and lead were also cast. Metals were initially made into small personal objects that could enhance prestige and status. Later, however, copper began to be used for tools, and by 4200BcE copper ores containing arsenic were deliberately selected to produce a harder metal. The addition of tin created a stronger alloy, bronze, which was in use in West Asia by 3200 Bcé The development of water- control techniques enabled West Asian farmers to colonize the southern Mesopotamian plains, where agriculture depended entirely on irrigation but was highly productive. By the mid 4th millennium BCE, this region was densely populated, and villages were developing into towns, with craft specialists. There was a growing demand for raw materials, including metal ores, which often came from distant sources. A trading CHINCHORRO MUMMIES The earliest mummies come not from Egypt, but from coastal northern Chile, an arid region where natural mummies occur from 7000 ce. After 5000 BcE the Chinchorro began artificial mummification. They removed the flesh, reassembled and reinforced the skeleton, stuffed the skin with plant material, coated it in clay, and painted it with black manganese or red ocher. Only some individuals, particularly children, were mummified network developed that stretched from Egypt through West Asia to the mountainous borderlands of South Asia, with towns controlling sources of materials and strategic points along the routes. Sumer (southern Mesopotamia) was at the forefront of this development, but social, religious, economic, and political complexity was also Copper ax heads Gold and copper were first metals to be worked. They became widespread in Europe around 2500 BCE he emerging in Elam (southwest Iran) and Egypt. Before 3000 all three regions developed writing systems, used to record and manage economic transactions and the ownership of property. The earliest known pictographic writing, around 3300 BCE, comes from Uruk in Sumer, a huge and complex settlement that is deservedly known as the world’s first city. Soo 8 mya-3000 BCE HUMAN ORIGINS olorful rals define eometric hole fo! J uh | features design cord | reed amework geometric oated in abstract hick plaster pattern Schist plaque 4000 BcE « PORTUGAL Human figurine 6750-6500 8cE + JORDAN Pottery shard 4000 8CE © ROMANIA Different cultures can be identified This large statue from Ain Ghazal It is unclear what Neolithic engraved by their unique ways of decorating is one of several from sites in plaques, like this one from Alentejo bjects—this shard is typic Mf the the Near East that may have symbolized, but they seem to have ucuteni-Tripolye culture represented ancestors or gods been made for burial with the dead ved antler Prehistory is traditionally divided into the Stone, Bronze, carefully c and Iron ages, but many other kinds of raw materials SELB I SIAN, such as wood, hide, and plant fibers were also used in | early technologies. Little evidence of these survives. leather or sinew binding In addition to being functional aids to survival and subsistence, the objects made by prehistoric peoples would also have been important in their social lives. Different groups develop their own ways of manufacturing and decorating objects, and distinctive designs may become badges of identity r status symbols. The trade and exchange of objects Is another vital way in which individuals and groups establish social relationships and hierarchies a { &: cars where slades chippe i fr nip 3 long, thin : blade remains of ‘ flaked cobble wan tool Blades and core * AFRICA 100,000 ace ONWARDS * WIDESPREAD tone tools were Early modern humans produced uniform, p-edged flakes of narrow blades that would have been fitted triking a stone to wooden and antler handles or held in the hard “hammerstone hand, as tools for many different purposes. _ thick base is easy to hold Flint hand-ax A 200,0008cE « uk barbed head made Hand-axes, such as this one from from antler Swanscombe, were skillfully made and used for a wide range of activities, including woodworking and butchery, finely detailed engraving Engraved bone 13,000-8000ece « FRANCE Paleolithic artists often carved as well as painted their depictions of animals, cene of a bison being chased, from Laugerie-Basse. as with th flint head set into wooden sleeve reproduced wooden handle Digging tools with adze heads 11,660-4000BceE « euRoPE These Mesolithic adzes were used for digging up edible roots or cutting wood in the forests that spread across | Europe after the last Ice Age ended. PREHISTORIC PEOPLES excavation damage Carved spear-thrower 10,500 8ce « FRANCE Spear-throwers, such as this one from Montastruc, were often carved into animal shapes—here, a woolly mammoth made from antler, They enabled hunters to throw spears farther and with greater force exaggerated features Lespugue Venus 24,000-22,0008ce * FRANCE This ivory figurine from Lespugue in ; the Pyrenees is one of many “Venus figurines—depicting women who are pregnant or obese, or whose female features are greatly exaggerated Neolithic flint blade set in reproduction handle Bronze Age sickle vw Gold jewelry ~ | a= 4700-42008ceE « BULGARIA ¥ At the cemetery of Varna in E a. s Bulgaria, more than 3,000 = -, Paee i pieces of some of the earliest 5 yy ><; we band gold jewelry have been found, 4 mainly buried with elite males soft clay was baked to preserve design \__ iron sickle blade Neolithic seal 7500-57008CE * ANATOLIA Seals such as this one Agricultural tools 9500 8cE-1834 cE « WIDESPREAD First wild and later domesticated cereals were harvested using sickles like these, until they were superseded in most places by the invention of the combine harvester, from the settlement of Catal Hdylik were used during the Neolithic to stamp decorative designs on to skin or cloth bone shuttle Clay burial chest 4000 BCE * NEAREAST One Chalcolithic (“copper age") burial practice involved leaving the dead out to decay, then collecting the bones and placing them in clay chests like this one Mummified head 7000-3000bcE « PERU In very dry climates, bodies can become mummified. Some of the earliest mummies have been found in Peruvian deserts. gold easily worked into decorative animal shapes loom weight Cloth-making tools 65008CE © ORIGIN UNKNOWN From the mid-Neolithic, weaving became common. Loom weight held vertical threads taut; bone shuttles were used to weave horizontal threads in and out This period saw the emergence of complex civilizatio Communities flourished and trade developed in the valleys of Egypt, India, western Asia, and China. Europ: Centrat and South America also flourished during this. and a circle of wooden posts were later replaced by the outer circle of stones seen here. DURING THE LAST HALF OF THE FOURTH MILLENNIUM BCE, the world’s first civilizations arose, first in Western Asia, then North Africa and South Asia. Civilization also appeared in China in the early second millennium BCE. By 3000 the world’s first urban culture had begun to develop in outhern Mesopotamia, in what is now Iraq. The lower Euphrates river plains had been farmed from c. 62008ce, after the development of irrigation systems—the Greek word amia means “land me between the rivers.” By 3500: farming communities were Ng into towns and then Ur, Uruk, and Eridu. Over the next 300 years, such a y came to dominate its nding area, forming a s in the land n southeast Mesopotamia. Metalworking had begun in Mesopotamia around 6000 ace Around 3200 Sumerian Tights Evphry, Syrian Desert Arabian Peninsula Ancient cities of Mesopotamia +} M, st urban agricultural success spotamia was civilization THE POPULATION OF THE CITY OF URUK c. 2800 BCE smiths began manufacturing bronze. The plow had been in use since about 5000ace, wheeled carts from around 3500s8ce, and such advances made farming more productive. The resulting food surplus freed some people from the farming life, allowing specialization into professions such as priesthood, crafts, trade, and administration. The world’s first tiered society developed, headed by kings sometimes known as lugals In Egypt, one of the world’s most complex ancient civilizations was forming along the banks of the Nile River by 3100ece. The Nile formed a narrow strip of cultivatable land, floodplain, as the KEY Extent of Early Dynastic y city-states oot! Ancient coastline river's annual flood [known as the inundation) spread black silt along its banks. The Egyptian farming year began in the fall when the inundation subsided, and farmers cultivated wheat, barley, beans, and lentils in the fertile soil By the end of the 4th millennium sce, farming communities had evolved into two kingdoms: Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt in the north. King Narmer united the two kingdoms c. 3100 8ce After Narmer came Menes, although historians are unsure whether Menes was Narmer’'s successor or a different name for Narmer himself, Menes is credited with founding the Egyptian capital at Memphis and Egypt's first dynasty. As in Mesopotamia, efficient agriculture produced prosperity and specialism, allowing arts, crafts, engineering, and early medicine to develop Narmer Palette This carved piece of green siltstone records the triumph of the legendary King Narmer of Upper Egypt over his enemies. The Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100-2686 sce) was already characterized by many of the celebrated aspects of Egyptian culture: hieroglyphic writing, a sophisticated religion [including belief in an afterlife), and preserving the dead using mummification. A complex hierarchical society developed, with the king at the apex accorded semi-divine status Egyptian kings—later known as pharaohs—ruled with the help of a chief minister, or vizier, regional governors ([nomarchs], and a huge staff of lesser officials including priests, tax collectors, and scribes In China, civilization originated in the valleys of eastern rivers such as the Huang He [Yellow River], where the rich loess soil we oe Dé made the land fertile. As early as 8000 sce, millet had been cultivated in the area around Yangshao in Henan Province Around c. 2400 sce, the neighboring Dawenkou culture developed into the Longshan culture of Shangdong Province Longshan farmers grew rice after developing irrigation systems. As in other early civilizations, agricultural success allowed the development of an elaborate society. Chinese craftsmen were making bronze tools c. 3000ace, jade vessels c, 2700 ce, and silk weaving had begun by 3500 ace The Bronze Age was underway in western Asia by 3000 sce, and possibly considerably earlier. The Bronze Age in Europe seems to have developed separately from around 2500 bce, using ore sources from the Carpathian Mountains in Central Europe This era also saw the beginnings of the Minoan civilization on the Greek island of Crete around 2000 BCE, with trading links to the nearby Cyclades Islands and the wider Mediterranean. In Western Europe, the earlier tradition of megalithic tomb building and a growing interest in astronomical observation gave rise to a new megalithic tradition of erecting stone circles, stone rows, standing stones, and tombs including astronomical features. These include Newgrange in Ireland, Stonehenge in England, and Carnac in France MILLION THE NUMBER OF BLOCKS USED TO BUILD THE GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA 5 ee m fs — be 4 The three pyramids at Giza were Vere vrery VENT Tl wee te wwe Ore er PY EOOVOes tery Te VOPOTY BeTTe ew et ey FRRER Standard of Ur This boxlike object has two side panels—one depicting war, the other (shown here] times of peace mound—provided the focus for religious ceremonies, and grain was kept in storerooms within the temple precincts. From around 2500 Bce, some citizens of Ur were buried in tombs along with uch as the Standard of Ur. The purpose of its intricate SOUTHERN MESOPOTAMIA was a patchwork of over 40 city-states, among which Ur, Uruk, Nippur, and Kish were the most important Trade flourished using a network of rivers and canals, and trade links extended to Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), Iran, and Afghanistan, with grain, minerals, lumber, tools, and vessels traded. The Sumerian population was unique in being predominantly urban. |n Ur, Uruk, and other centers, people lived in clustered mud-brick houses. At the heart of the city, the ziggurat—a terraced temple treasur = tas built for the pharaohs Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura between 2575 and 2465B8CcE. They are guarded by the statue of the Sphinx, which may bear the features of King Khafra CONTRO } Ba GH Ta\t He ct | —— VVwv 7 Vwew ~ Adan Canadian Aa ee Dh ahe 2 od eee ned ban 2 NAA ee cee A tee a ae mee AS Tf side panels is still a mystery; they may have formed the of a lyre Arising from the need to keep economic and administrative records, the first pictographic writing developed in Sumer (c. 3300.8ce}. Pictographs (pictorial writing representing a word or phrase] evolved into a script called cuneiform c. 2900.ce, in which scribes pressed sharpened reeds into soft clay to leave wedge-shaped impressions. Southern Mesopotamia became densely populated, putting pressure on natural Cuneiform tablet Over time, the inventory of signs regularly used in cuneiform script was greatly reduced. resources. This led to conflicts over land and water, and alliances between cities were forged ind broken The first signs of civilization in the Americas appeared along the coast of Peru and in the Andes c. 2800 8ce. Andean farmers grew potatoes and the cereal quinoa, and raised alpacas and llamas There were fishing communities on the coast, while inland towns became ceremonial centers, built around mud-brick temple platforms. An exceptional example is Caral, about 125 miles (200km) from Lima and dating from c. 2600ace. Another, Aspero, had six platform mounds topped by temples. Cotton was grown in the region, and corn was cultivated from around 2700 sce The Indus Valley civilization began to emerge in South Asia in the fourth millennium see, as flood control technology developed. By 600 ace, the Indus Plain contained dozens of towns and cities, Of these, Mohenjo-daro on the Indus River, and Harappa, to the northeast, were preeminent, with populations of around 100,000 and 60,000, respectively. In Egypt, King Sanakht acceded to the throne in the year 2686 sce, marking the beginning of the Third dynasty and the Old Kingdom era—a time of strong, centralized rule and pyramid-building These magnificent monuments were built as royal tombs. In Early Dynastic times, kings had been buried beneath rectangular mud-brick platforms called mastabas. Around 2650.sce, the first pyramid, the Step Pyramid of Saqqara, was completed for King Djoser. Designed by the architect Imhotep, it resembled six stone mastabas on top of one another Straight-sided pyramids appeared soon after, the greatest of which were the three pyramids at Giza. These incredible feats of engineering were constructed not by slaves as was once thought, but by a staff of full-time craftsmen and masons supplemented by farmers performing a type of vice during the Nile floods, Enormous blocks of stone national se’ (lower stones of 6-10 tons; higher ones of 1-2 tons] were cut from local quarries, hauled on site using sleds, and then heaved up ramps, which grew ever higher as construction progressed The ruined citadel of Mohenjo-daro was made up of various buildings. It was built on a platform to guard against flooding of the Indus River. Silbury Hill in Wiltshire, England, is one of the tallest man-made chalk mounds in Europe. These mounds probably had a social or cultural function, IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 3RD MILLENNIUM BCE, civilizations continued to develop in western Egypt, and and southern Asia, and complex societies Asia 5 were emerging in China, Europe, and South America In southern Asia, the Indus civilization [see 2700-2500sct emerged in its mature form around 2500eCcE, stretching 1,060 miles (1,700km) from east to west and 800 miles (1,300km] from north to south. The region's prosperity was based on farming, mining, crafts, and trade. More than 100 sites have been excavated, including the cities of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Dholovira Mohenjo-daro and Harappa re well-planned cities laid out on a grid system. Each city was protected by brick walls and dominated by a citadel overlooking a lower town’ of public buildings and residential town houses of one or two stories were seemingly The residential areas divided by industry, suite) Iranian Plateau Naushart Sutkagen- Indus civilization Excavations suggest that the Indus civilization covered an area far larger than Mesopotamia and Egypt combined. such as pottery, bead-making, and metalworking Indus cities and towns had the most advanced plumbing system in the ancient world, with enclosed and covered drains. Latrines emptied waste into drains, which wel ran below the streets Tt conne 2 urban centers were also ted by extensive trade links, Merchants supplied craft products from the valleys to Agrarian lives A clay model of a bullock cart found at Mohenjo daro, dating back to c. 2500-1900 BCE, gives an insight into farming life in the Indus civilization. KEY © Zone of urban civilization e@ Urban centers Modern coastline the surrounding regions in return for metal ores, precious stones, and timber. Long-distance trade routes reached as far as Mesopotamia and Afghanistan By around 25008ce, an Indus script of hundreds of signs appeared on seals and pottery. Attempts to decipher the script have failed; hence, many aspects of this culture remain a mystery. In western Asia, Mesopotamia {see 2700-25008cE) remained a patchwork of small but powerful city-states, each controlling the surrounding farmlands where barley, legumes, and date palms were grown. To the west, city states were developing in Syria and the Levant, A trade network linking Mesopotamian towns suggests cooperation between states, but there was frequent warfare as well ANEW POWER AROSE IN MESOPOTAMIA c. 23348CE, King Sargon (c. 2334-2215 8ce) from the northern region of Akkad defeated Lugalzagesi of Umma to become the ruler of Sumer Through subsequent campaigns to the Levant, Syria, and Anatolia, Sargon carved out the world’s first empire—the Akkadian Empire— stretching from the eastern Mediterranean to the Gulf. Sargon’s exploits were recorded in several documents, such as the Sumerian King List. His name means ‘legitimate king,” which led some scholars to believe that he took power through force Sargon spoke Akkadian, a Semitic language that replaced Sumerian as the official language of the empire LAY [CONTENTED] MEADOWS, AND THE LAND REJOICED. 99 Lugalzagesi, king of Sumer, defeated by Sargon c, 2316BCE Akkadian rule was enforced through regional governors who collected tributes and taxes, The empire's weakness lay in its lack of defensible borders, and it came under regular attacks from neighboring hill tribes, Sargon’s Bronze-working had begun in West Asia c. 32008cE [see 10,000-3000sce). It was developed by the Unétice culture of Bohemia and Poland c. 25008ce, and 200 years later had spread to Italy and the Balkans. Bronze provided a hard metal for forging armor, weapons, and tools such as this hand ax. The bronze industry also increased trade, making Europe more interconnected than ever before. grandson, Naram-Sin, extended the empire, but it lasted for only four generations before falling to attacks. Sargon’s rule established a practice of statewide bureaucratic controls and standardization in many aspects of economic life. In Egypt, this period saw a weakening of the power of the Old Kingdom rulers [see 2700-25008ce), in favor of regional governors called nomarchs, who administered different parts of the Nile valley and delta. To the south of the first cataract on the Nile, the kingdom of Nubia also grew more powerful, Nubia was centered around the city of Kerma at the third cataract. By the end of the Sixth dynasty [c. 21848cE], the authority of the Egyptian rulers had steadily eroded In Western Europe, the Bell Beaker culture flourished Named after the distinctive shape of pottery vessels found in graves, this culture emerged by c. 26008CE in France, Spain, and the Netherlands. Over the next three centuries, it spread to Germany and Britain. Around 2300 Bce, bronze technology from Mediterranean regions and from Central Europe started to spread northward along the Rhine and Danube. The increasingly militaristic societies used bronze to create weapons, triggering the appearance of small chiefdoms across Europe As populations grew, competition over land and resources intensified. Fields were enclosed, farming expanded, and boundary walls built. Imposing structures such as chalk mounds were constructed in many areas In South America, societies continued to develop in two distinct regions: the upland valleys and high plains of the Andes, Akkadian warrior king This bronze cast of an Akkadian ruler may depict Sargon | or his grandson, Naram-Sin, who extended Sargon’s empire. and along the Pacific coast and inland valleys. Andean cultures were based on farming and herding. Coastal settlements such as Aspero (Peru) were unique in their dependence on fishing rather than on agriculture The coastal people grew cotton for textiles, and gourds, which were used as fishing floats z Fan = ——— = a at E Ss rd — = a - Relief sculptures in Egyptian tombs represented everyday life and religious rituals. This carving from the Sixth dynasty shows boys with sticks, on the left, and youths wrestling, on the right. THE MOUNTAIN PEOPLE OF GUTIUM ATTACKED the Akkadian Empire c E. Sumerian states sucha Ur, and Lagash took the opportunity to reassert th ndependence For the next 80 years, t time of unrest calle Intermediate Period city-states vied for cont Mesopotamia. In 21 Ur-Namm ) gained as if Ur r Mesopotamia and Elam, and regained much of e. Sargon’s empire. Ur-Nammu foun: the Third dynasty of Ur, which witnessed a revival of Sumerian power, as wel artistic and cultural renaissance. Sumerian scholars d da hoi counting, based on units of 60. This system is ed in our modern di of + In China, the Longshan culture | d to confirm the of a centralized state end of th d millennium, Europe's first civilization was e Mediterranean hours into 60 minu minut and a circle into 360 degrees Ur-Nammu also commissioned the first Ziggurat in Ur—an impos stepped platform topped with a temple. The later becar hari of ancient western nto archaeological evidence has Mediterranean trade Known as the Minoan civilization, it grew prosperous through trade and farming Cretan farmlands produced wheat, olives, wine, and wool, which could be easily transported by sea, The Minoans also made bronzework, pottery, and dyes for export. By 2000 BCE, Crete was home to several small kingdoms o architecture. In c. 2181 BCE, Egypt's Old Kingdom collapsed fc a series of natural disaste including famine. This undermined the authority of the king, who was believed to secure the annual floods that THE LIKELY POPULATION OF UR c.2100 3000-700 BcE foszeeshy iiietee Nva23, cider sy aR Lobiny.=heisoan =F Ess Mesa} lal 333] IWW222lk5 F BeNWSe As Hehia fatten Ts SS22119f 20 ee LT $Me nIci Ze sfM2 20 UP zc Mafsise any weet TSW 3ZaU wes se[iSNS AlzaiasSinSs Leisciebeizicpaxn = aed ccayeges: sNgelsmencehot siffakesati-oyzninihy =| : ai De oe arabe hieratic script reads from right to left Prehistory Pictograms Pictures painted years ago are co! 3300BCE 28 a) of caves up to 25,000 aprecursor to writing, recording information that could then be understood by others. Cuneiform The first true written script is developed by the Sumerians of Mesopotamia. Writing with a reed stylus creates a wedge-shaped impression on tablets of wet clay, which then dry hard. | EARLY CIVILIZATIONS hieroglyphs + are picture f beet] Reon PHedijex sryZtokhitall: aoe Kn aga \ Shy ssHs cast ML anastasia gy | Bhs ods AMP ACAMSMsZSalobo hme 112IN) | PET ASAI Mhosloc lee sdrMsnsoMeMs pe se. | SERS erie Rarraitee pred oy | jaBin hams theses letett as isaewh ere) igs, “Szespainier | HES Wee cHlalanete | SV paseiod MMMSmIZsziteaates fhe | | 5 Se 9 Te SPT ov piitwalsannHianaMelrses Joli FL 2sns=is Morse saheiallies Je lsakccs= Sih edeEctMlealDahvaiilat. Desish23-.4 ee | Jsflealtstir ihe2eK ee jemzitikéssniebs fea Gz hh Dinengrasbace Avismraé Mute Sc lbgh. 2: initials} SAulinis Afounneet | WiewteaboOmARSaeT seat saihSafalin ilePtncditiskactscakietes|olin fads Oas jal BEta1s aks gee #rsc)2init SD sate ee ad illustration shows a priest making an offering to the god Osiris papyrus, made by pressing together layers of strips of reed ¢. 3200BCE Egyptian hieroglyphs Egyptian writing develops 100 years after cuneiform This script begins as a form of picture writing, and includes signs for words and also sounds. It remains in use until the 4th century ce. 8th century BCE The Greek alphabet The first alphabets, using only consonants, develop on walls nsidered Cave images by Anasazi Indians who add vowels. c. 1900 BCE Chinese writing The first surviving Chinese writing appears on oracle bones, used in divination. This ancient script is still in use today. Chinese script involves 50,000 characters that stand for words. a, beg Mesopotamian tablet in the Levant by c. 1150Bce. They include the Phoenician alphabet, which spreads to the Greeks through trade, Chinese paper scroll _— SSSR Sad Egyptian hieroglyphic and hieratic script This ancient Egyptian papyrus manuscript shows two forms of Egyptian writing: hieratic script (left) and hieroglyphic script (right] above the two figures. Hieroglyphic is an elaborate script in which signs take a highly pictorial form, while hieratic is a simplified version of hieroglyphic for ease of speed and writing. 100 The Roman alphabet The Romans adapt the Greek script to write Latin. Through the Roman Empire, this alphabet spreads across Europe and is used for personal as well as official correspondence. Greek wax tablet c. 6th century BCE Parchment Made from dried and : processed animal skins, parchment becomes a popular medium for writing around the éth centuryece, taking over from papyrus, a paper made from reeds. Chinese parchment scroll RY O TE 516 \ The development of writing was an amazing breakthrough, as it allowed people to communicate over distance an Writing evolved separately in different c d record information for posterity. ultures: in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley before 2500 BcE and later in Crete, China, and Mesoamerica. Some scholars think that prehistoric cave paintings featuring images and symbols constitute a form of writing. The first true script was developed by the Sumerians of Mesopotamia (now Iraq) around 3300 BCE. Soon, a number of different ancient cultures had developed writing, usually to keep economic records or keep track of time. As writing developed, it was commonly used to reinforce the authority of rulers. Many early texts, including monumental ones in stone, glorify the deeds of kings and attribute their success to divine approval. Writing systems can be divided into three types, according to the function of the signs used: logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic. However, some scripts make use of two types of signs. In logographic scripts, each sign stands for a whole word; Chinese writing is an example, although it also uses syllabic signs. The drawback is that a very large number of symbols are needed (Chinese has 50,000 characters). In syllabic scripts, signs stand for syllables. A smaller but still large number of signs are needed—700 in Babylonian cuneiform. In alphabetic scripts, each sign stands for a sound. Far fewer symbols are needed—usually around 26. The first alphabets developed in the Levant between 1450 and 1150 BCE. For years, the spread of writing was limited by the labor involved in hand-copying texts, but this changed with the invention of printing. In the late 20th century, writing became electronic with the invention of word processors. In the 1990s, the spread of information was again revolutionized by the arrival of the Internet. Ancient texts in the digital world Nowadays, ancient texts can be viewed digitally. Here, a student examines a digitized page of the Codex Sinaiticus, handwritten in Greek over 1,600 years ago. THE STORY OF WRITING 1 IMPORTANT PART OF OUR CIVILIZATION Roman mosaic Modern sign Pictograms, or picture signs, are an ancient form of communication. Some scholars do not consider pictograms to be “true” writing, since the symbols do not convey the sounds of words in any language. For example, the pictures above—from a house in Roman Pompeii dating to 79 cE, and a modern sign—convey the same warning. The symbol can be read in any language—for instance, as canis, chien, Hund, or dog. Those words convey the same idea but reproduce the sounds of different languages—Latin, French, German, and English. Pictograms have limited use but remain widespread, appearing, for example, on street signs, maps, and clothes labels. 7th century Arabic script The Arabic alphabet is used to write down the Qur'an, the holy book of Islam. Its use spreads with the Islamic faith to become one of the world’s most widely used scripts. Medieval 7th-9th centuries Illuminated manuscripts In early medieval times, the use of writing spreads through the copying of Christian texts. Illuminated manuscripts are highly decorative, with ornate capital letters and marginal illustrations. 4th century The codex The codex, or manuscript in book form, gradually supersedes the roll of parchment. Originally developed by the Romans, the use of codices spreads with the Christian religion. c. 1450 Invention of printing In medieval times, the laboriousness of copying by hand limits the spread of writing. The invention of printing using movable type makes writing far more accessible, In 1500, an estimated 35,000 texts are in print. 1884 The fountain pen quill pen. Ballpoints, 1867-1868 The typewriter American inventor Christopher © Latham Sholes helps to build the first practical typewriter. The patent is sold to Remington, which puts the first typewriters on sale in 1874. The Remington Book of Durrow Model | The first practical fountain pen is produced by American inventor L. E. Waterman, and quickly replaces the invented by Laszlé Bird, are in use by the 1940s. 1990-present Text messaging In the 1990s, the first text messages are sent via mobile phones. Texting becomes very popular in the 2000s. In 2009, more than 1.5 trillion text messages are sent. Waterman fountain pen Smartphone 1965 Writing enters the digital age In the mid-1960s, the first electronic messages (emails) are sent from one computer to another. Emails become popular with the spread of personal computers in the 1980s. 110 Ye 6710 77°70] AME = 3 “No A? Te; AD AO AY TRY Egyptian hieroglyphics involved the use of pictorial signs. This example is from a coffin from the Middle Kingdom period. THE MINOAN CIVILIZATION, named after the legendary King Minos, flourished on the Aegeanisland of Crete in the early 2nd millennium, reaching its peak between 2000 and 16008CE. It is thought that Crete’s prosperity was based on the export of pottery, gold, and bronze, as well as possibly grain, wine, and oil, to Egypt, Cyprus, and Palestine. The Minoans established colonies in many parts of the Aegean, including the islands of Kythera, Thera, Melos, and Rhodes, and at Miletos on the Turkish mainland. The farmlands of Crete were ruled from cities with central palaces that housed workshops, the administration, religious facilities, and state storerooms. Those at Knossos, Phaestos, Mallia, and Zakros were their remains. Around 1700BceE, these palaces were burned down, and only Knossos was rebuilt, on amore magnificent scale than before, suggesting its dominance over the entire island. The palace was five stories high, with rooms opening onto inner courtyards. This mazelike complex is thought to have given rise to the labyrinth in the legend of the Minotaur, a bull-headed monster. Bulls certainly featured in Minoan ceremonies. The deities : worshipped in Minoan shrines : seem to have been female, with » a goddess of nature being the : most popular. However, details of particularly impressive, judging by | : since the Minoan scripts, known as | : Cretan hieroglyphic and Linear A, : have yet to be deciphered. Minoan culture remain obscure, In Egypt, King Mentuhotep » had reunited the country at the © end of the 3rd millennium [see | 2350-2000sce). Yet the second of i Egypt's eras of strong, centralized » rule only began with the reign of » Amenemhet I, from about © 1985Bce, during the Middle : Kingdom. In 1965BCcE, his » successor Senwosret I conquered © the land of Nubia to the south, ‘THE NUMBER OF DAYS IT TOOK TO MUMMIFY A BODY extending Egypt's borders as far | as the second cataract of the Nile. : Nubia yielded gold, copper, and slaves to swell the ranks of : Egypt's army. Around a century | later, Senwosret III also made Levant a vassal state of Egypt. Middle-Kingdom Egypt was more democratic than it was during the Old Kingdom period. Rulers presented themselves as shepherds of the state rather than » absolute monarchs. The process of mummification, once confined : to kings, was now permitted for ' ordinary citizens. |n order to : preserve it as a permanent home for the spirit, the body was dried in natron salt, its vital organs were removed, and it was stuffed with linen and wrapped in bandages. Charging bull Minoan rituals included a bull-leaping ceremony, in which athletes grasped the bull’s horns and vaulted over its back. This Knossos fresco dates back to c. 1500BcE. Shang bronze This bronze plate was found at Erlitou, and is of the Xia period. It is inlaid with turquoise mosaic, believed to represent a dragon's scales. IN CHINA, THE SHANG CIVILIZATION developed along the Yellow River by 1850BcE. According to legend, China’s first dynasty was the Xia, but current archaeological evidence points to Shang as the first dynasty. At Erlitou in Henan province, archaeologists have uncovered a palace complex built on a 0,00 THE NUMBER OF CLAY TABLETS SO FAR FOUND AT MARI $ ry a Ss ee es xo so SF 6? 8? So a Oy OO" VF wo J 2 BE 0 re So dc OP PC sis a9 So Sr SR OPE 0 AP FR ges ee Pee oo ed SWS 7 ss s EM ae ee we shohers, we poo = 9? 9% eMagriar® er ESC Pew KT ” Me 0% oe OS) ee oS 3 Sa Ses eS So? oe” BORG =n ce Koso @ oO 5) ie ~ w & He’ * Mab we lnk Tal 44 If A MAN PUTS OUT THE OF AN EQUAL, HIS EYE S KEY Area of Shang influence Shang city Shang China The middle course of the Yellow River was the heartland of the Shang civilization c. 1800-1100 BCE. From here, Shang influence, such as bronze-working, spread elsewhere. platform of compressed earth. They have also unearthed bronze vessels. Evidence suggests that many features that were to characterize Chinese society later, such as a strong bureaucracy and the worship of ancestors, date back to this time. In southern Asia, the Indus civilization, which had thrived during the 3rd millennium [see 2500-2350 BcE), went into a decline by around 18008cE. Scholars believe that this was partly caused by the changes in the regimes of the rivers that provided water for irrigation. Cities seem to have been ravaged by diseases such as cholera and malaria. Trade with Mesopotamia also declined. Meanwhile, new crops such as millet and rice were introduced. All these factors seem to have led to a decline in urban culture, characterized by writing and a centralized bureaucracy, in favor of arural-based culture. In South America, large-scale cultivation was taking place along the Pacific coast by about 1800 8ce. Substantial settlements such as El Paraiso and Sechin Alto in Peru were dominated by massive temple complexes. — ASIA Yellow Rive, Xi'ang Shang capital 1400-13008CE Huixian Xingtai Anyang Bo Hai *Taixicun oo gre Yellow Shang capital Sea 1300-10278ce ——__ Zhengzhou Luoyang Erlitou Long-distance trade routes linked © coastal towns with communities in Andean valleys to the east and : beyond. This allowed for the : spread of pottery from Colombia to Peru by 1800BceE. Meanwhile, in North America, crops such as sunflowers and gourds began : to be cultivated in the east. In Western Asia, the fall of the Ur Ill Empire led to the rise of two : states—Assyria in the north and | Babylon in the southeast—which were to dominate Mesopotamia for the next 1,500 years. The first : dynasty of Babylon was established Shang capital 1600-1400BCE ‘ suai Henan he & é ae? Pantongcheng East China S€4 Wuchenge inc. 18948CE. In the north, the city of Ashur became an important trading center in the 20th century BCE. In 18138CE, it was taken over by the Amorite king Shamshi- Adad, who carved out a kingdom in northern Mesopotamia. This kingdom was a forerunner of the Greater Assyrian Empire of the 9th century Bce (see 900-800Bce). Clay tablets recovered from Mari in central Mesopotamia hold records of trade and tributes levied by Assyria from vassal- states. Writing from this period included copies of the earliest surviving work of literature, The Epic of Gilgamesh. Sumerian hero from the Old Babylonian the Epic of Gilgamesh, previously passed down in the oral tradition. se Tablets and stone carvings period provide a record of BE PUT OUT. 99 EYE ALL Law Code of Hammurabi, king of Babylon WHEN THE ASSYRIAN KING SHAMSHI-ADAD died in 1781BCE, he was succeeded by his son Ishme-Dagan. During his reign, Assyria declined, allowing the state of Babylon to come to the Adad, Babylon was probably a vassal state of Assyria, but as Assyria declined, King Hammurabi a wider kingdom. From 17608CcE, Hammurabi embarked on aseries : of conquests, which made Babylon the region’s foremost state. Between 1763-17628cE, he defeated Elam to the east and Larsa, which controlled Sumer, to the south. In 1757-1755 BCE, King Hammurabi conquered much of northern Mesopotamia and took the city of Eshnunna after diverting its water supply. Hammurabi introduced the Babylonian law code in the region under his control. Its 282 laws covered property, family, trade, and business practices. The Law Code of Hammurabi is famous for punitive laws that meted out punishments in the same Setin stone Hammurabi’s code was inscribed on stone pillars called stele. This stele shows the god of justice Shamash (left) dictating laws to the king. : measure as the crime committed : ("an eye for an eye"). However, it is : thought that the law code was : more ofa moral statement of » principle than an enforced judicial i system. As such, the code bound fore. During the reign of Shamshi- : ' as ordinary people; the strong were exhorted to refrain from : oppressing the weak. of Babylon saw his chance to seize the powerful and wealthy as well 31 3000-700 ecE | EARLY CIVILIZATIONS Sardinia The importance of trade Trade was essential to supply societies with the raw materials and manufactured goods needed for daily life (such as metals and lumber), for displaying status [such as fine weaponry), or for embellishing religious monuments and royal palaces (such as lapis lazuli). Trade also promoted the spread of knowledge, technology, and ideas. KEY Mycenaean Greece Elam Hittite Empire New Kingdom Egypt Mitanni Arzawa Assyria ~~ Trade routes c.1350BCE Kassite Babylonia ANCIEN THE BIRTH OF ADVANCED SOCIETIES to Central and Northern Europe MYCENAEAN GREECE onia® & | Sea Orchomenos & , - = Thebes i 3 Apasa M/RA A " . XQ a= : ieee Athens, Pylos >fF <) aes Menelaion S< TUS Gs ¥ r nossos n SEHA RIVER MASA AND TRADE COMMODITIES — © gold ® timber glass Wa) © silver © srain faience objects @ tin ® ivory turquoise YY ®@ copper © ivory objects © murex dye x fine metalwork perfumed oils @ seashells © fine pottery © olive oil horses i textiles wine © weapons T EMPI In the 3rd millennium sce, states emerged in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus. Urban society was consolidated in Western Asia in the 2nd millennium, and powerful states vied for control of lands; in contrast, in South Asia, towns disappeared. Complex societies emerged in China and the Americas. The exceptional agricultural productivity of the Nile, Euphrates, Indus (see p.26), and Yellow {see p.31) river valleys undoubtedly played a part in the precocious emergence of civilizations in these regions. So did international trade, which was also important in the development of the first New World civilizations. Trade also enabled many neighboring societies to achieve prosperity: through time they developed complex cultures increasingly focused on urban centers, and came into competition for resources and markets. High-level diplomacy was essential to the smooth operation of international trading networks and to success in inter-state power struggles. Royal letters found in the Egyptian capital, Akhetaten {Amarnal, provide a fascinating picture of relations between the 14th-century BCE rulers of the rival great states of the eastern Mediterranean. 44 FORALONG TIME WE HAVE HAD GOOD RELATIONS BETWEEN US KINGS... 99 Babylonian king Burnaburiash I to Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten, from the Amarna letters, 14th century BCE to sub-Saharan Africa THE WORLD PICTURE Urbanism and complex societies became more widespread during the 2nd millennium Bce. While they shared many features such as trade, high agricultural productivity, dense populations, and their managerial needs, urban societies took many different forms. In the Americas, large ceremonial complexes with residential suburbs provided the focus for the communities of the wider region, strongly connected by shared religion and trade. Advanced centers This map shows established and emerging civilizations in the later 2nd millennium BCE. Societies of farmers and hunter-gatherers occupied other regions. KEY © chavin HH Olmec MH Shang 1 Mycenaeans ‘gypt @ Babylonia WD Assyria HE Hittites © Mitanni @ Elam TUMMANNA KINGDOMS OF ANCIENT EGYPT The Nile Valley's exceptional agricultural PALA KASKAS fertility promoted the early development Hattusas, Ppp of urbanism in Egypt. Settlements clung PLayy to the Nile delta and riverbanks, beyond HITTITE URUADRI which lay arid desert. The great mineral ; EMPIRE ISUWA (URARTU]) resources of the flanking desert regions HAPALLA c and Nubia, which included gold, were R As 4 important both for domestic use and to \ TARHUNTAS3 1 Carchemish Sm aerent anni . support international trade. MUKISH Harran Alalah e Nineveh @ @ @,rbil KEY Aleppo: Emar_ MITANNI ASSYRIA ~~ Trade routes Capital cities Cyprus é (Alashiya) 4 Tunip Ashur so a gory Shechem l tachisee™ Sharuhen ATLANTIC OCEAN San| Lorenzo Chavin de Fuantar ATLANTIC OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN SAHARA to Afghanistan 6 @DurKurigalzu BABYLONIA Babylon ® a ALAND Susa ELAM Nippur, A e Uruk is Anshan Arabian Peninsula Mycenae one Pe Xiahoee Babylo: Memphis PACIFIC OCEAN Zhengzhou_/ INDIAN OCEAN Org iterranean $24 i Elephantine NUBIA SATIU A YAM s ens nue peo Old Kingdom c. 2686-2181 BCE Rulers exercised centralized control and commanded impressive resources, as shown by the pyramids at Giza. yer ag Me, “diterranean Se? ~ capital 1650-1850 BCE Sinai capital_/ ¢.1985-1650.BCE UPPER EGYPT capital 2 / c.2055-1985 BCE and ¢.1650-1950 BCE NUBIA, WAWAT Bln NUR OF pe? KUSH: Middle Kingdom c. 2040-1640 BcE Decorated tombs record prosperous life under the stable 12th dynasty, but the state disintegrated under later rulers. My Pditerranean Se er-Ramesse (Qantir) cna) Desert Akhetaten [Amaral 99° Waset Thebes) UPPER EGYPT. 9, O¢07E, ese_ PN New Kingdom c. 1550-1069 BcE Egypt reached its greatest power and prosperity, conquering Nubia and the Levant, and building several temples. Hattusas, the Hittite capital, was founded by Hattusalis | in 1650BcE and destroyed in 1180BcE. AFTER HAMMURABI'S DEATH in 17508CE, the Babylonian Empire (see 1850-1790BcE} declined. At the same time, other powers were on the rise, such as the Hurrians of Mitanni in Syria, and the Hittites of Anatolia in Turkey. By 16508CE, the Hittites had built an extensive kingdom in central Anatolia, with its capital at Hattusas. The Hittites had developed advanced bronze- and: ironworking skills, and they were = also known to be fierce fighters. In 1595 sce, the Hittite king Mursilis (r. 1620-15908cE] raided Babylon and expanded his empire. However, he was killed soon after, and the empire shrank : back for about a century. j In Egypt, the Middle Kingdom (see 2000-1850BcE) was waning The Hittites developed iron smelting by c. 1500 Bce. At first, iron was used only in luxury objects, such as in the decoration of this box from. Acemhoyek. Later, as technology developed, iron was used to create superior weapons. Though the Hittites traded iron goods, they kept this technology secret for about 300 years. Around 12008cE, ironworking spread to Greece, and then to Central Europe by c. 7508cE— the dawn of the Iron Age. ; by 1670 BCE, partly due to erratic © floods in the Nile, As regional ; governors became more powerful, civil war broke out. Outsiders soon took advantage of the unrest. The Nubians won back lands that the H Egyptians had taken earlier (see 2000-18508ce). In 1650Bce, the Hyksos from the Levant : seized Lower Egypt, but : Upper Egypt remained under the : control of Egyptian kings. Man and beast The Hittite Empire was known for its bronze craftsmanship. Bronze weapons and artifacts fetched a high price. This statuette of aman anda horse was probably a commission. Built over 300 years, the temple complex at Karnak, Egypt, includes the world’s largest temple, dedicated to Amun-Re, the patron deity of the pharaohs. IN c. 1550 BCE, THE THEBAN KING Ahmose | (r. 1550-1525 Bc) drove the Hyksos from Lower Egypt, ushering in the third period of settled rule in Egypt, known as the New Kingdom (c. 1550-10708ce). During this time, Egyptian rulers assumed : on the Greek mainland. Its Egyptian religion was very complex. Every village, town, and district had its own patron deity. In paintings and sculptures, many deities were shown with animal heads, representing their most important attributes. For example, = the falcon god Horus protected the king, while the ibis- headed Thoth was the patron god of scribes. By 1600BcE, a new civilization » emerged : people are now known as the Mycenaeans, after the fortress- : palace of Mycenae, believed to be : the home of the mythical king Agamemnon from Homer's Iliad. However, the Mycenaeans THE NUMBER OF NAMES FOR GODS AND GODDESSES IN ANCIENT EGYPT the title “pharaoh,” meaning “great house.” A succession of warrior kings campaigned to expand Egypt's boundaries once more. Tuthmosis | (r. 1504-1492 Bce] drove the Nubians back in the south and recaptured Sinai and parts of Syria and Palestine. Under Tuthmosis Ill (r. 1479-1425 gece], Egypt controlled a strip along the . Mediterranean coast and north of / - R the Euphrates (see p.33). Mask —<—~ Whe The conquered states paid huge = of gold ~S ti ha annual tributes to Egypt, a part of Caan & which was spent building one of {| 2/chaeologist 7 F Ate 4 Heinrich the world’s largest religious siteS | cchtiemann found this at Karnak and the impressive funerary mask ata grave mortuary temple of Queen in Mycenae, and claimed it Hatshepsut (r. 1473-1458 Bce]. : belonged to King Agamemnon. » Tutankhamun was buried with fabulous treasure. This detail from the probably called themselves Ahhiyawa. They had migrated from the Balkans or Anatolia about 500 years earlier. Their lands were a patchwork of small : kingdoms, each later dominated by a palace-citadel such as the ones at Mycenae, Tiryns, and Pylos. They spread their influence through trade. After the collapse of the Minoan Empire c. 1450 BcE, the Mycenaeans took over several sites formerly occupied by the Minoans, including Knossos. After c. 1400 cE, they also took over Minoan trade networks : and established settlements », _onRhodes, Kos, and the Anatolian mainland. The Mycenaeans inherited Minoan arts and crafts, adapting the Linear A script to write an early form of Greek known as the Linear B script. They were great traders, and ventured out to Sicily and Italy. A ship ’ believed to be of +). * Canaanite origin, Sin ey ra » found to contain tin from Iran «| or Afghanistan, copper and * = pottery from Cyprus, ivory and jewelry from Egypt, and Mycenaean swords. The late Bronze Age was a time of unrest in Western Asia. From 1550-1400 8ce, there was a struggle between various powers in the region, including Black Sea k THRACE a we Lemnos THESSALY lotcus# Lesbos Sporage» Aegean Anatolia ed fonian Orchomenus WPS? "Fiboes 907 Islands Gulhor WThedes Chios ‘hs MycenaemeDengrastre"= 9 A aps @ Miletus Peloponnese Cyclades 2 lonian Beiiilensiaion = Ce Sea Ryloemy Vapheio i q Melos @ Phytakopi %, 5 Mediterranean Chania Sea Sea of Crete Thera Rhodes Knossos Crete Phaistos # : Aegean civilizations : Around 1450BCE Mycenaean | influence spread throughout the | Aegean, including to several sites that : had been part of the Minoan Empire. i the Hurrians, Hittites, Elamites, : Egyptians, and Kassites. In the : 1570sBce, the Kassites had gained control of Babylon. However, by 1450BCE, the Hittite | New Kingdom was growing » in influence, partly due to an : alliance with Egypt. Around this | time, the Mitanni dominated Syria, = but by the 1400s, the Hittites were © fighting for control of the region. In China, the Shang civilization © (see 1850-1790 ce) flourished | around 15008CE, with its rulers : dominating a large area of : central China. However, the : Shang had to regularly fend off © threats to their kingdom from : nomadic tribes to the north. : Shang capitals were surrounded KEY * Mycenaean site ® Mycenaean major palace by defensive walls. Kings and nobles were buried in tombs, which held fabulous grave goods. The Shang capital moved several times during this period. Shang society was believed to be well organized and extremely hierarchical. Writing began around 1900BcE. Most examples of early writing took the form of oracle bones, attesting to the Shang rulers’ practice of consulting their ancestors on important decisions. Questions concerning the future were inscribed on the bone of an ox or ona turtle shell, which was then struck with a hot metal tool. The way the bone cracked was believed to provide the answer. pharaoh’s throne shows him being anointed by his wife Ankhesenamun. IN c. 1352BCE, AMENHOTEP IV, a religious reformer, became Egypt's pharaoh. He broke with the traditional religion, with its pantheon of gods, and initiated to Akhenaten, meaning ‘living spirit of Aten,” and founded a new capital between Thebes and Memphis. He named it Akhetaten, meaning “horizon of Aten.” Akhenaten’s religious reforms were believed to have been unpopular, especially with the influential priestly elite. After his death inc, 1336 BCE, his son Tutankhamun ascended the throne at the age of nine. He restored the old gods and abandoned the new capital. Tutankhamun is believed to have died under mysterious circumstances at 18, and was hastily buried in a minor tomb. It was thought for years that Tutankhamun died of a blow to the head, but the latest evidence suggests he died of blood poisoning after breaking his leg ina chariot crash while out hunting in the desert. Sun worship Akhenaten instituted the worship of the sun-disk Aten. In this relief carving found at Akhetaten (modern el-Amarna], he is seen worshipping the sun with his wife Nefertiti. Since the 1570s 8ce, Egypt's : pharaohs had been buried in = rock-cut tombs in the Valley : of the Kings, on the west bank © of the Nile. Rulers hoped their the worship of a single god, Aten, i or sun-disk. He changed his name = : tombs were robbed of their : rich goods. However, in 1922, : British archaeologist Howard : Carter found Tutankhamun's : tomb virtually intact. The : shrine room had four gilded | shrines, holding the king’s © coffin and mummy with a solid : gold mask. The other rooms contained jewelry, furniture, ; golden statues, and musical » instruments. tombs would be safe from robbers, but almost all the tana 7 TOWARD THE END OF THE 2ND MILLENNIUM BCE, the eastern Mediterranean and Western Asia were a mosaic of empires, which comprised Egypt, Babylonia, Elam, Assyria, and the Hittites in Anatolia. strove to gain ascendancy over its neighbors through conquest or diplomacy. In war and peace, vital trade routes, through which tin and | © (c.1274Bce). Although » Ramesses claimed : victory at Qadesh, the battle is believed to copper for bronze reached the region, remained intact. A frequent flashpoint for conflict was the Levant (modern Syria and Lebanon], which Egypt had lost to the Hittites following the reign of Akhenaten (see 1350Bce]. In the 13th century BCE, Pharaoh Seti! and : : further campaigns in his son Ramesses Il campaigned to win it back. Ramesses’ 67-year reign (r. 1279-12138ce] was 44 YOU AREA GREAT WARRIOR | : (he had about seven wives in total). : Following the treaty, Ramesses : kept up a friendly correspondence WITHOUT EQUAL, VICTORIOUS IN SIGHT OF THE WHOLE WORLD. 99 Inscription commemorating the victory of Ramesses II at Qadesh atime of stability and prosperity for Egypt. Through a combination of war, diplomacy, and strategic marriage, Ramesses sought to extend Egyptian influence to Western Asia. In the 1270sBCE, he fought a series of wars with the Hittite king, Muwattalis II, of which : Ancient propaganda A detail fram the temple i firing an arrow, taking on the Hittite army © single-handed at the Borders fluctuated as each kingdom : ‘ 8 The facade of the temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel features four colossal seated statues of the pharaoh, but the statue second from left has crumbled. of Ramesses I! at Abu Simbel shows the king Battle of Qadesh. the most famous was the Battle of Qadesh have been inconclusive, and the Hittites held on to the region. In 1259 BCE, after Syria, Ramesses tried | adifferent tactic, and : negotiated a pioneering peace treaty with the new Hittite king, Hattusilis III. Ramesses also took two Hittite princesses in marriage with the Hittite ruler, which was : recorded on clay tablets in Akkadian cuneiform script. Ramesses also embarked © onan extensive program of » monument-building. On Egypt's : southern border with Nubia, he : constructed the magnificent : temple of Abu Simbel. He founded a new capital at Per-Ramesses in : Lower Egypt, although Thebes in » Upper Egypt remained an * important center. West of Thebes he built a vast mortuary temple, : which doubled as a palace, court, : and center of learning. The late 2nd millennium BCE : sawthe resurgence of Ashur, _ in whatis now called the Middle : Assyrian Empire (1350- : 10008cE). Following the death of | Shamshi-Adad in 1781 BcE (see | 1850ece), Ashur had become : avassal first of Babylon, then i of Mitanni. A revival of Ashur's : fortunes began under Ashur- : uballit I (r. 1363-1328BcE), who : broke free of Mitannian rule and : carved out a kingdom in northern | Iraq. His later successors, : Shalmaneser | and Tukulti- : Ninurta |, continued to gain : territory, expanding the kingdom's : borders west to conquer eastern Mitanni and briefly, from 1225- : 1216BcE, southeast to Babylonia In the Aegean, the Mycenaean | palace-kingdoms of the Greek : mainland continued to thrive. The boulders used to make these walls, now in ruins, at Mycenae on the Greek mainland were so huge, later civilizations believed they were built by giants. BETWEEN 1250 AND ABOUT 1050 BCE, many of the powers that had dominated Western Asia for centuries went into decline, and some disappeared altogether. The eastern Mediterranean entered atime of turmoil, and many coastal cities were laid waste by unknown invaders—written records of the period give few clues as to their identity. First to succumb were the Hittites, whose capital Hattusas was sacked and abandoned c. 1200BCE. By c. 1180BcE, Hittite possessions in the Levant were lost and the empire fragmented. These conflicts were most likely instigated by the waves of migrants known collectively as the Sea Peoples. These warlike peoples came from many different areas, including Sicily, Sardinia, Greece, Libya, and Anatolia. Whatever their origins, their movements through the eastern Mediterranean inc. 1200-11008CcE led to attacks on Cyprus, Egypt, Anatolia, and Canaan and Syria in the Levant. In 1178BceE, the Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses Ill drove the Sea Peoples from Lower Egypt, but could not prevent them from : colonizing the Levant. Around 12008ceE, the Mycenaean kingdoms entered a time of upheaval, a result of both internal disintegration and : external threats. The defenses of many Mycenean palaces were i strengthened. Records at Pylos = show the inhabitants feared attack : from the sea. By 11008cE, most of © the Mycenaean palaces had been : sacked and abandoned. This » triggered the so-called Dark Age of Greece, when writing fell out of © use, not to be reintroduced until the Homeric age [see 800Bce). In the late Bronze Age, parts of Europe came to be dominated by the Urnfield Culture—named after the practice of cremating the : dead and burying the remains in © funerary urns, sometimes accompanied by rich grave goods. This culture originated in the » Danube region in 13008cE, and : spread to Italy and central and eastern Europe in the following centuries. Between 1200 and 7008ceiron technology spread northward : from Greece to Central Europe. 44 THEY CAME BOLDLY SAILING IN THEIR WARSHIPS FROM THE MIDST OF THE SEA, NONE BEING ABLE TO WITHSTAND THEM... 99 An inscription by Ramesses II (r. 1279-1213), referring to the Sea Peoples Iron rapidly replaced bronze in tools and weapons, signaling the end of the Bronze Age. In Mesoamerica, the region's first great civilization, the Olmec, was emerging in the lowlands of Mexico's southern Gulf coast. The Olmecs built ceremonial centers, including San Lorenzo, constructed temples and houses on earthen mounds, and carved huge stone heads clad in helmets. They also : established long-distance trade routes. Meanwhile, other cultures ' were emerging, suchas at Cerro : Sechin, in what is now Peru. : Stone warrior Monumental carvings from temples : at Cerro Sechin on the Peruvian | coast show warriors, torture victims, and human sacrifices. ~ ff WHEN ALL LONGINGS THAT ARE IN THE HEART VANISH, THEN A MORTAL BECOMES IMMORTAL... 99 Krishna Yajur Veda THE CLOSE OF THE 2ND MILLENNIUM SAW MAJOR CHANGES in the power politics of West Asia. In 1070BceE, the Egyptian New Kingdom ended and Egypt entered a time of unrest called the Third Intermediate Period, which lasted until 747 BCE [see 800-700 sce). Historians believe that the power of the pharaohs had been eroded bya priestly elite who had gained control of many areas. By 1000BcE, all of the territories won by New Kingdom pharaohs had been lost. In Mesopotamia, there were frequent wars between the Babylonians, Assyrians, and Elamites; the region was also subjected to devastating raids by Aramaean nomads from the west. Meanwhile, other powers were rising in the region. A Semitic- speaking people, who called themselves Canaanites, had inhabited the Levant for centuries, living in city-states that controlled the surrounding territory. They were skilled seafarers and played a maior role in international trade. : Asia since By 11008ce, Canaanite port cities the 1500s8ce. such as Arwad, Byblos, Tyre, and By the Sidon were expanding their operations, establishing trading posts and colonies throughout the eastern Mediterranean. They traded cedarwood from Lebanon, glass- and ivory-ware, metal ores, and, most important, an expensive purple dye made from murex shellfish. It was this luxury commodity that caused them to be known by their more familiar Greek name, the Phoenicians, after phoinix, Greek for “purple.” In China, a new dynasty replaced : the Shang in 10278CE, when King Wu of the Zhou defeated the last Shang ruler, Di-Xin. The Zhou dynasty was to rule China for 700 years. This long erais usually divided into two periods: the Western and Eastern Zhou. During the first era, the Zhou capital was Zongzhou. This was a time of prosperity and strong central control. Zhou territory was divided into fiefs held by trusted noblemen, : in return for military allegiance. But many aspects of Chinese tradition already present in the Shang period continued in the Zhou, ‘ including ancestor worship and the : use of oracle bones for divination. Meanwhile, in Japan, the Jomon culture, named after the cord patterns (jomon) that decorate its pottery, continued. The Jomon people were still hunter-gatherers, © albeit prosperous and sedentary. In northern India, small groups of nomadic pastoralists had been migrating into the Ganges basin from Central 1100s BCE, most had begun to settle and cultivate crops. They spoke Sanskrit, which became the language of early Indian Mark of a culture In this example of late-Jomon pottery, the bowl and stand bear the distinctive rope patterns that give the Jomon period its name. oe we ie eo (oars 6 Co Le 9% DS ne > 98s oye oe wn oo eS oo oe gto <0? co ok ooo Aw ae ce Cas) pr i) CN o S cao? Wd OP" 2" ne <<) x S oN & os! a? 0 en? ¥ e SS ew oP ce ¥ ws sacred writings. Sanskrit, an Indo- : European language related to Iranian and almost all European : languages, is also the ancestor © of modern languages such as = Hindi and Urdu. Sacred writings called the Vedas were transmitted orally in Sanskrit for many centuries. Although the Vedas are largely © religious writings and hymns, the geographical information that they contain not only describes the gradual spread of farmers © and pastoralists from the Punjab to the Ganges basin, but also gives some information about conflicts with other groups, and © local life at the time. For example, © the division of society into varnas or castes is described in the Vedas, first appearing in © Book X of Rigveda, although there is nothing in the text to suggest : that the system was hereditary : at the time. J oe S 9 ws PO veo Ate We oo, Coen tt oo" 0™ 38 hoe A Or 60 O° SIS ors 508 oe? atl COE ROG gO Mae! L oo we g 37 3000-700 sce | EARLY CIVILIZATIONS neck is circled by a collar. x Perpauty and his wife Statue with stele c. 1360BcE Cat figurine c. 600BcE children bringing ; ec CECT LG @ . ai knob is part of locking device Decorated box of Perpauty c. 1370BcE This sycamore box belonging to a man called Perpauty may have held linen. All four sides are painted with scenes. This side shows Perpauty and his wife being offered gifts by their son and three daughters. offerings Duck-shaped flask c. 17008cE This jar is carved in the shape of a This copper alloy figurine sits ona wooden base. Cats were linked with the goddess Bastet, who protected the pharaoh. A hole through the Acarved figure representing a high priest of Amun holds a stele, or carved slab. These slabs were used as grave or commemorative markers. The inscription is a hymn to the Sun duck, which appears to be trussed and plucked. It probably held cosmetic paste, such as eye-paint, which was likely removed and applied using a nose originally held a ring. god and lists local dignitaries. ANCIENT EGYPT A REMARKABLE CIVILIZATION REVEALED THROUGH EVERYDAY ITEMS AND TREASURES Artifacts manufactured over some 2,000 years bear witness to the skills of Egyptian craft workers. Theyalso < reflect Egypt’s wealth and its trade network, through which ebony, lapis lazuli, and turquoise were imported. Many of the objects shown here were used in daily life by well-to-do Egyptians. They reflect belief in the afterlife and the practice of burying possessions that it was believed would be used by the dead person's spirit in the afterlife. The ruling classes were buried with great wealth, but almost all of their tombs were stripped of their riches either in antiquity or more recently. mask of cartonnage—a combination of plaster and linen } tt Shabtis 1292-1190BcE Statuettes of servant-figures called shabtis were commonly placed in tombs. The Egyptians believed they would come alive to serve the dead person's spirit in the life to come. Funerary mask c. 1500BcE This mask would have been placed over the head of a mummy. The Egyptians mummified bodies because the deceased spirit could not survive unless there was a body for it to return to. details such _/ as eyes are stopper/applicator, now lost. material is the rare blue stone anhydrite Mummiform shabti c. 1300BcE This large shabti figure was carved from wood. The tools the figure carries are traditional symbols of kingship, while the scarab represents the god Khepri. _— scarab ornament on chest modeled in paler wrappings inlay __/ > cea lapis lazuli Mummified jackal or dog c, 600 BCE Jackals and, from the 8th century ace onward, also dogs were mummified in honor of the jackal-headed god Anubis, who presided over funerals and embalmings. ANCIENT EGYPT Necklaces c. 1550-1069 ece Egyptian craftsmen had access to many semiprecious stones and precious metals. Necklaces were worn in daily life and also buried with the dead. Ear studs and earring c. 1550-1069 ace Once the basic shapes for these studs and earring were made, strands of glass in a contrasting color were wound around them. The studs required large perforations in the wearer's lobes. backing for__/ mirror Wooden comb c. 300BcE This double-sided comb has a row of longer and shorter teeth. Many Egyptians had short hair handle and and wore wigs. Combs were backing made used to keep both natural hair of ebony and wigs tidy. gold band purple amethyst ibex symbolizes grace and mastery over the natural world Cosmetic spoon c. 1360BcE This spoon for cosmetic paste was carved from schist in the shape of an ibex, with its head bent over its back, so that its straight horns touch the bowl. disk representing sun Amulet Mirror handle 912-3438cE c. 1360BcE The wedjat eye symbolizes This hardwood mirror setting the eye of the god Horus. This originally held a polished charm was placed on mummies bronze mirror disk. The handle to protect the dead person's is carved in the shape ofa spirit in the afterlife. It also papyrus column topped with symbolized regeneration. the god Bes—a popular deity. Male figure amulet Frog amulets c, 2200BcE c. 1360BcE This golden charm shows a Frogs were a symbol of life kneeling male god clasping and fertility. Women wore two palm ribs. He is probably frog amulets for luck. These the god Heh, who symbolized charms are made of blue eternity. The palm ribs are faience (pottery) with details notched, representing years. picked out in gold. inlay held within cells of gold charm may have been part of a necklace Scarab pectoral Winged scarab ¢. 1361-52BcE 644-322BcE This magnificent chest ornament Scarabs were common lucky charms. represents the scarab god Khepri The scarab beetle was a symbol for rolling the red sun-disk. It was found rebirth and was worn as jewelry in the tomb of King Tutankhamun. in ancient Egypt. 2 In the mid- modern Israel) was an important Isra IN THE 10TH CENTURY BCE, THE PERIOD OF DECLINE in the major powers of Western Asia continued. Egypt, Babylon, and Assyria had weakened, enabling the rise of the : short-lived but historically significant Kingdom of Israel. The Israelites were Semitic- speaking pastoralists who, according to the Bible, migrated into the land of Canaan in the 1200s Bce. There, they came into conflict with the local Philistines and Canaanites. Around 1000 BCE King David (r. 1006-965 sce) united the Israelite tribes and established his capital at Jerusalem. David's son Solomon (rc. 965-928 Bce] increased Israelite territory and built a magnificent palace and temple in the capital, but on his death the kingdom split in two. Eventually Etched in gold This golden plaque showing the protective wedjat eye symbol dates from the reign of Psusennes | of the 21st dynasty, when Egypt was divided. : Sa Oth centuryece, during the reign of King Solomon, Megiddo [in elite fortress and administrative center. The jaguar featured in many Mesoamerican and South American religions. Here it is depicted in a stone carving from Chavin de Huantar. SHALMANESER III (858-824 Bce) : Israel and, later, Judah became part of the Assyrian Empire. Meanwhile, Assyria began to | reemerge as a major power in » Mesopotamia. King Ashur-dan II : (r. 934-912BcE] boosted agriculture, : bringing prosperity. His successor Adad-nirari Il increased Assyria’s © territory, regaining lands that had : been held by the Middle Assyrian Empire in the 13th century BCE. se Pee < es as = ot \) acy oO so er ae rr cess ce” Wve ee ora rio or Rtas ory of oe" So & i ae sort g We! oO we ow oe In the 9th century Bce, King Shalmaneser Ill of Assyria greatly expanded his empire, with campaigns against Mesopotamian tribes, Israel and Judah, Syria, Urartu, and Anatolia. This black limestone obelisk commemorates his deeds and those of his commander-in-chief, Dayyan- Assur. It details, in cuneiform, the enforced tributes paid by the people he conquered. THE OLMEC CULTURE CONTINUED TO DEVELOP IN MESOAMERICA in the 9th century BCE. After San Lorenzo was destroyed in c. 9008cE, La Venta to the northeast became the main Olmec center. This larger settlement was dominated by a 111ft (34m) high pyramid, the forerunner of Mayan temples. The Olmecs also devised a script of glyphs—the first in the region. Their influence spread across Mesoamerica, impacting on other cultures that were starting to emerge at this time—the Zapotecs and the Maya. In eastern North America, the Adena culture was developing in the Ohio Valley. It was characterized by ritual earthworks and burial mounds containing objects of fine craftsmanship. Far to the south, the Chavin culture had appeared in the Peruvian Andes by c. 1200Bce and spread to the coast. The Chavin SEN xs were skilled engineers and architects who built canals and leveled slopes for farming and construction. The main settlement, Chavinde Huantar, was high in the : Andes, and seems to have been a pilgrimage center for a cult of supernatural beings that were part-human, part-animal. The main god, the “Staff God,” is usually depicted with fangs. In Europe, iron was gradually replacing bronze as the metal of : choice for tools and weapons. The area around Hallstatt in Austria became a center for an early Iron Age culture that developed from the Urnfield culture (see 1200Bce). : Hallstatt chieftains dominated local salt mining and ironworking. They lived in hilltop forts and were buried with rich grave goods. During the 9th century BCE, the Phoenicians were becoming a major power in the Mediterranean. : i nearby Syria and Phoenicia were brought under Assyrian control. Their trading ships, previously confined to the eastern sea, now _ KEY © Assyria © Egypt * Phoenician colonies | E Phoenician H city-states Greek colonies Greek city-states Gadir . Emerging Etruscan city-states Mediterranean region Carthage AFRICA Grave goods This Iron Age brooch | was discovered in a grave at Hallstatt © in Austria. The type of jewelry | found suggests that a woman was | buried there. i plied the western Mediterranean. : Colonies were set up in Cadiz, in © Spain, on the Balearic Islands, : and, most notably, on the North | African coast at Carthage [in | modern Tunisia). Through this i trading network, the Phoenician © alphabet became known © throughout the Mediterranean. In Western Asia, the Neo- : Assyrian Empire began to : expand, and, one by one, Israel, Judah, and the small states of EUROPE Black Sea Caer Pithekoussai © Athens: weg Corinthgh —“eMiletus Syracuse Sparta M Khorsabad, ud ea; "erranean Seq This map of the Mediterranean region in the 8th century BCE shows the colonies established by the dominant civilizations of the period, : including the Phoenicians and Greeks. ao o 2" oF xo — SS we 3 ot PYF yo eo ys oo GF gee ris Sah eo? OPP go WH? QE gg go dS oe oe oy ee ok pega ako os a OF, of AP oO we coe es ok So re RS & Oe WY gw? rs om CS OS SX 6° Pa .y a 2 x ~ a) king and his queen feasting in the gardens of the royal palace there. ASSYRIA CONTINUED ITS POLICY OF AGGRESSION through the 8th century BCE, conquering rival states in Western Asia and reducing them to provinces. Assyrian success was based ona disciplined, technically advanced army and an efficient bureaucracy. Conquered peoples © had to pay costly tributes, and i revolts were ruthlessly crushed. Particularly troublesome nations suffered forced deportations— large numbers of people were resettled in Assyria. Following a period of weak rule in the first half of the 8th century BCE, Tiglath-Pileser Ill (r. 744— 727 BCE) recouped Assyria’s losses. His successor Sargon Il (r. 722-704 BCE) campaigned in od e SS oo ce Oo SE gO ene or” Roe wo Fe ye Oe yrd Coe) A og? AT OY Os Pe Sars Care ro 5 ye oot Xoo’ ro 09 se ao % Spee J, ngs NI ooh od a pa Se ree & we Se i s se = x ata oe a $4 a » ot 0 eS a?’ sore aP> 9% oo Cees 0? gol KE ee eo oF “oot Foot aw of : Ritual container : Zhou smiths were highly skilled | metalworkers. This bronze bowl dates from the 8th century BCE, the time of the Eastern Zhou dynasty. Iran and Anatolia, conquering : Babylon and, in 714BCE, defeating : the Armenian state of Urartu. He : also defeated the Israelites and : transported the “ten lost tribes” of © Israel to northern Mesopotamia. In 705 ece, the Assyrian capital moved to Nineveh. This stone relief shows the Assyrian In China, the Zhou capital moved east to Luoyang in 770BcE, marking the start of the earlier part of the Eastern Zhou era, which lasted until about 480Bce (see 5008cE). Royal control had weakened, as the lords who held large fiefdoms had grown more powerful. Now central control disintegrated, and rival warlords fought one another. Despite the chaos, this era was a time of technical and cultural advancement. Iron tools increased efficiency in agriculture and food production. Populations and cities grew, and philosophy, the arts, and literature began to develop. In Egypt, the unrest of the Third Intermediate Period continued. Since 8508ceE, the country had 5 =z OS Res soe eed 9? ad oF oo AS os Pate it pe or oo 8 ayes shal Ps & Ww Xs cS —* we? os No Rae ay oe ys been embroiled in a destructive civil war and was now divided into small states. In the 8th century BCE, the Kushite ruler of Nubia to the south, Piye (r. 747- 7168Cce), conquered both Upper and Lower Egypt, and united them under Kushite rule. In the Mediterranean, Phoenician influence continued to spread, as the city of Carthage in North Africa grew powerful. Greece, meanwhile, was starting to emerge from the Dark Age that had followed the Mycenaeans’ downfall. City-states or poleis were forming on the Greek mainland, centered on hilltop citadels. To increase their territory, the poleis founded colonies around the shores of the Aegean. Although rivalry between cities was often intense, a distinct Greek identity and culture was emerging. All Greeks were the first pan-Hellenic games were held in honor of Zeus at Olympia. By the mid-700s sce the Greeks had adapted the Phoenician alphabet Twin discovery This painting by Charles de La Fosse depicts the legend of Romulus and Remus, who were abandoned as babies and suckled by a she-wolf, before being rescued by shepherds. Kushite statue This alabaster statue dates from the period of Kushite rule in Egypt. Amenirdis |, sister of Shabaka |r. c. 716- 702 BCE], is shown holding a flail—a traditional symbol of Egyptian rule. for their own language, and not long after, Homer's epic poems the /liad and the Odyssey—hitherto transmitted orally—were probably written down. In the 8th century BCE, central Italy was a mosaic of small states ruled by the dominant Etruscans—ltaly’s first indigenous civilization— and Italic tribes such as the Latins, Umbrians, and Sabines. Rome is thought to have been founded by the Latin chief Romulus in 753BCcE. Inits early days, the city, built on ; seven hills, was ruled by various © peoples, including the Etruscans, : Latins, and Sabines. identified as “Hellenes.” In 7768CE rT SUCH A GREAT TASK ITWAS TO ‘FOUND THE ROMAN RACE. 99 | Virgil, from Aeneid 1:33 41 THE CLASSICAL AGE 7O0BcE-599 cE Culturally dynamic civilizations emerged in Greece, Rome, Persia, India, and China, marking the beginning of the Classical Age. The impact of Classical developments in science, art, and politics is still felt to this day. 44 HE EVERYWHERE SOUGHT EXCUSES FOR STIRRING UP WAR.99 Livy, from Histories book I, xxi, on Tullus Hostilius, third King of Rome IN CHINA, THE CITY OF LUOYANG HAD FALLEN TO THE SHEN in 771 BCE, and the Western Zhou capital was transferred east to Chengzhou. From there, the Eastern Zhou dynasty presided over the fragmentation of China into as many as 148 states. From around 7008CE the Zhou were ruled by puppet-emperors, while real power lay with the ba(“senior | one”) among nearby states. Under Qi Huan Gong [r. 685- 643 Bce], the state of Qi had supremacy. After Huan Gong’s death the competition for power between his five sons weakened Qi, and Jin Wen Gong [r. 685- 643.8cE), the ruler of Jin, rose to become ba. By the end of the century, power in China alternated = among the states of Qi, Jin, i Qin, and Chu. Nubian Pharoah Taharga ruled Egypt for 19 years before an Assyrian invasion forced him to return to Nubia in 671 BCE. KINGS OF ROME In Italy, the city-state of Rome was beginning to acquire an urban : heart, and the first forum was : constructed. The second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius | (r.716-6748ce) is believed to have _ established the main Roman : priesthoods and a calendar. In the Near East, the Assyrians * continued their expansion, © confronting Egypt, whose intermittent support for rebels : against Assyrian rule in Syria had © long been a source of tension. In : 671BCE, the Assyrian ruler © Esarhaddon invaded, capturing : the Egyptian royal capital of Memphis. However, Assyrian j control over Egypt was weak, © and the Nubian pharaoh Taharga drove the invaders out. The Etruscans expanded southward from modern Tuscany and Umbria around 700 BCE. Their language remains undeciphered, but lavish tombs indicate a rich material culture. During their expansion, the Etruscans founded cities such as Capua, but came into conflict with Greek colonies and with Rome. Although more powerful at first, the Etruscans were politically disunited, and a long series of wars with the Romans : turned against them. Pyramids from the cemetery at Nuri, Sudan, which was the burial site of the Napatan and Meroitic kings from around 650BcE. 44 TAHAROA THE GODLESS CAME OUT TO TAKE EGYPT. 99 : Ashurbanipal's account of the conquest of Egypt, 664BCE IT TOOK A CONCERTED CAMPAIGN BY ASHURBANIPAL (r. 668-627 BCE) in 664-6638CE to defeat the Egyptians who had rebelled against Assyrian rule, and to push Assyrian control as far south as Thebes (modern Luxor). This was not the last rebellion against the Assyrians—only ten years later, the vassal king of Sais, Psammetichus I (r. 664-6108ce], revolted against his Assyrian masters, driving them out and founding the 26th Dynasty, under which Egypt’s independence was restored. After the final collapse of Assyrian power, in 609 8ceE, Egypt was able to establish a foothold in Palestine under Pharaoh Necho II (610-595 ace). In Greece, the rise to preeminence of a number of city states, notably Athens, Sparta, and Corinth, began. In Corinth, a new type of ruler, the “tyrant,” emerged with the overthrow of the Bacchiadae kings in 658 BCE. The newruler, Cypselus (reign c. 657-627 BCE] relied on force of personality rather than divine sanction, and established a dynasty under which Corinth enjoyed a seven-decade period of dominance, creating colonies © throughout the western Mediterranean. On the fringes of the Greek world, in western Asia Minor, the » kingdom of Lydia was increasing | in power under Gyges [685- 647.8ce), its first great king. He allied with Ashurbanipal of : Assyria to see off a joint threat : to their two lands by Cimmerian raiders in 668-665 BCE, but then ASHURBANIPAL [r, 668-627 BCE) y Ashurbanipal initially shared rule over Assyria with his brother, Shamash-shuma-ukin. is After defeating his brother's revolt in 648BcE he greatly expanded the Assyrian domains. As well as annexing Egypt, he attacked Elam, sacking its capital, Susa, in 647BCE. His latter years saw none of the military successes of his early reign. At his death a dispute between his two sons further weakened the Assyrian Empire. as: ey, ABea: s rors ‘ ; 2) Soe ot & 0 assisted Psammetichus | of Egypt in his revolt against the © Assyrians. He also adopted an : aggressive stance towards his : Neighbors, the lonian Greeks of » Miletus and Smyrna. According to Japanese tradition, © the first emperor, Jimmu Tenno, : a descendant of the sun goddess » Amaterasu, ascended to the throne in 6608CE. The stories of his migration from southern Honshu eastward to establish his kingdom near Nara are © legendary, but may echo real : events of the Japanese Yayoi : period after 1008CE, when tribal chieftains began to consolidate their territories. The third king of Rome, Tullus © Hostilius (r. 673-642BcE) was + more martially inclined than his * precedessor Numa Pompilius, and THE NUMBER OF CLAY TABLETS UNCOVERED IN _ASHURBANIPAL'S LIBRARY PHRYGIA LYDIA URARTU Harran NEES © Ninever shorsabad ineveh® hur Carchemishe BABYLONIA Ss, tyrow @Damascus Babylon ELAM “Sy ISRAEL SYRIAN Uruk® gy, Jerusatem® AMMON DESERT EeypT JUDAH ‘. MOAB Memphis : The Assyrian Empire | From its core around Assur and : Nineveh, the Assyrian empire grew to encompass Babylonia, Media, Elam, | Urartu, Syria, and Egypt. » led the war against neighboring : Alba Longa, which ultimately led © to that city’s destruction and the : deportation of its population to © Rome, in the first major Roman © expansion. The fourth king, © Ancus Marcius (641-6178ce), i expanded Roman territory toward | the coast, and founded Rome's : great port of Ostia at the mouth : of the Tiber. His successor, © Tarquinius Priscus (616-578 BcE) : was the fifth king of Rome and one : of the city’s greatest kings. He © came from an Etruscan » background, a sign of the high level of Etruscan influence over : the early city of Rome. Tarquinius : Priscus won a series of victories : over the Sabines, the Latins, : and the Etruscans, who all : competed with Rome for : dominance over central Italy. He is » also said to have established the : public games in Rome. Alion frieze from the Processional Way in Babylon, which was built © through the heart of the city to the Ishtar Gate. THE ASSYRIANS HAD FINALLY CONQUERED BABYLON in 6918CE, partially destroying the city. Reconstruction work began under Esarhaddon (680-669 8CcE], and by 6528CE Babylon had recovered its importance and became the center for a major revolt led by Shamash-shuma-ukin against his younger brother Ashurbanipal. It took four years of war to suppress the Babylonians and their Elamite allies, and the fighting drained Assyria’s ability to hold on to its empire. By 630BCcE, Assyria had lost Egypt and Palestine, and in 626 BCE the Babylonians regained their independence. By 616BCE Babylon was strong enough to invade Assyria, aided by the Medes [whose base was in northwestern Iran). In 612BcE the Babylonians, Medes, and Scythians sacked the Assyrian capital of Nineveh. The Assyrian empire crumbled. A remnant of the Assyrian army regrouped and established a small kingdom around Harran, but by 6098CE this, too, had fallen. The Scythians formed part of a culture of nomadic horsemen which held a large territory on the steppes north of the Caucasus from around 8008CcE. In 652BCE they forced the Medes to submit to them and the Scythian King Bartatua was even sufficiently influential to be given an Assyrian princess as his wife. The alliance with Assyria survived into the reign of his son Madyes, but around 615BCcE the Scythians switched sides and played a key role in Assyria’s destruction. Their Median subjects soon turned on them and around 590BcE the Scythians retreated north. In the Greek world, there was a growing movement to establish colonies in the Mediterranean. Among the earliest were in Italy, including Syracuse, founded around 7338CE. In North Africa, Greek settlers founded Cyrene (in Libya) in about 6308cE, and Massilia (Marseilles) around around 600BCcE and ran 600BcE. New cities were established as far west as Spain, and around the Black Sea coast. In Greece itself, the city-state of © Sparta was establishing its dominance in the Peloponnese. A defeat by the city-state of Argos, in 669 BCE, was followed by military reforms and victory against the Messenians [660- 650Bce). By 6008cE, Sparta had conquered almost all the southern Peloponnese and established a stratified social system. Sparta’s future rival, Athens, gradually united the area surrounding Attica under its rule : in the 8th century BCE. The : hereditary monarchy was : replaced by nine “archons,” chosen annually. Shortly after a » damaging popular uprising by : Cylon in 632Bce, Athens received : its first law code, drafted by Draco © in 621BCcE. The Draconian law : was later known for the severity of | the punishments it prescribed. To the south of Egypt the state : of Napata became a power of the : first order, conquering Egypt : under Piankhy (751-716 BcE) and © controlling it under after the death : of Taharga (690-664 ce). stylized body Scythian stag The flowing lines and realistic depiction of the stag’s muscled flanks in this late 7th century shield ornament are typical of the art of the Scythians. St oe Ny e? Ss Rod G & . oe S ; v8 x ee xe 3 eS Sao Co) sf oO oe? wr gf ray * oye we wee Say, Le Xie gah a age NS Othe ee Ce Se Ver Pr Mg coor Roe OE cathe Ne oe? Be x a soo yo SS AY 40 oP? c ye CRORE OMe Sr te iC ee ae eae P07 OX ws CARS a oe oF ce ok BOP Vcr Cok nS aro BPN ye wre oe ack ow rer ee nt ae ne ee y ee oh we Se sf Ss cP Sor et s ee 45 EU ~ ee ek seen 4 a was captured by the Babylonians in 597 BCE. It was taken again, and largely destroyed, 10 years later. After both sieges many of its inhabitants were deported to Babylon. HAVING HELPED DESTROY THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE, Nabopolassar (r, 626-605 Bce), first king of the neo-Babylonian dynasty, embellished the city of Babylon. His son Nebuchadnezzar (r. 605- 562.8cE] defeated the Egyptians in 605BCE, repaired Babylon’s main ziggurat, and ordered the building of the famous “Hanging Gardens.” The last neo-Babylonian king, Nabonidus |r. 556-5398ce), moved his royal court to the Arabian oasis of Tema, but discontent rose among the Babylonians during his reign. The Medes of northwest Persia (Iran), consolidated their kingdom under Cyaxares [r. 624-585 Bce) and took part in the destruction of the Assyrian Empire in 6128CcE. Lawgiver and reformer Under the last Median king, : Astyages [r. 584-549 Bc), Median armies campaigned in Azerbaijan : and controlled land as far west as Lydia (Turkey). But by the 550sBce, Media was under pressure from the Babylonians to the south and » the new power of Persia. The kingdom of Judah had long acted as a block to Assyrian and : Babylonian expansion to the west. » In 597Bce, Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusalem and deposed King Jehoiakim. The king they installed : in his place, Zedekiah, turned against the Babylonians, and in : 587BcE there was another siege. : Much of the city was burned, the : Jewish Temple destroyed, and many of its inhabitants deported : toa life of exile in Babylon. This image shows the Greek statesman and lawgiver Solon teaching. His reforms began to undermine the power of the aristocracy in Athens. The powerful city-state of Athens i experienced reforms under Solon : about 600Bce, notably a law code : that protected the property rights : of the poor, forbade debt-slavery, : and moderated the more extreme ' parts of the Draconian laws | (see 650-601). Around 5608cE, : Pisistratus seized power and began : torule as a tyrant (dictator). Driven : out once, he returned in 547 BCE : and established a stable regime. The Greek city of Miletus saw the » beginnings of philosophical | thought from about 6006cE. | Thales (born c. 6248CE) tried : to understand the basic nature : of the universe and thought its : fundamental element was water. y > eisieik et Central Asia became a stronghold of Buddhist beliefs. These cave paintings in Dunhuang, China, illustrate a variety of Buddhist parables. CYRUS, RULER OF THE SMALL KINGDOM OF PERSIS [also called Pars] in the west of Persia [Iran), revolted against his Median overlords in 559BcE. By 550BcE he had conquered the Median capital of Ecbatana and overthrown their ruler, King Astyages. Afraid of the increasing : power of Persia, the Lydians under King Croesus opposed Cyrus, but he struck west and in 547Bce, on the Halys River, defeated the Lydian army and annexed western Asia Minor. In 539 sce Cyrus captured Babylon, acquiring most of Mesopotamia and making the Persian Empire the greatest in the Middle East. Cyrus died in 530BcE while fighting in what is today Turkmenistan, and was succeeded by his son Cambyses. In 526 BcE Cambyses sent his armies south into Egypt. The Pharaoh Amasis had just died and his successor Psammetichus III — S ? 5 - i. — Darius the Great : King Darius is shown enthroned and bearing symbols of power in this | frieze. His son Xerxes succeeded him. » Cambyses died in 522 BcE and © after the brief rebellion of Bardiya, : who was either the younger » brother of Cambyses or someone impersonating him, Darius, a : Persian noble, took over as king. Widespread revolts broke out, : including in Media, but Darius put 44 | HAVE FOUGHT 19 BATTLES IN ONE YEAR... T HAVE WON THEM. 99 The Behistun inscription of Darius was not well established. Cambyses defeated the Egyptian army at Pelusium in 525ece and then captured the royal capital at Memphis. He installed himself as the pharaoh and then subdued southern Egypt. Persian rule in Egypt lasted until 402 ce. : them all down. He then © expanded the Persian Empire © by annexing lands in central Asia © and on the borders of India from » 519 to5158ce. In India, the : political power had coalesced » around the Mahajapanadas, a : group of around 16 powerful 482 THE NUMBER OF YEARS OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC kingdoms. Of these, Magadha was the most important state. Afterward, Darius subdued most of the Greek city-states of lonia, before he crossed into Europe in 513 BCE to conquer Thrace. » Inltaly, Servius Tullius (r. 578- 534), the sixth king of Rome and : said to be a former slave, had succeeded Tarquinius Priscus in © 578ace. During his reign he implemented important reforms, : fixing the formal boundaries of the city by dividing the Romans into four “tribes,” a system that would be extended as Roman territory grew, and also into © classes that were graded by wealth. The population was divided by what equipment they could afford and what role they played in the Roman army. The wealthiest class fought as cavalry, the higher classes as heavy © infantry, and the poor as light auxiliary troops. The votes of the richer classes carried much greater weight in the popular assembly. The last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus [r. 534- 509 Bce) was an Etruscan. Concerned at the growing tyranny of his rule, a group of 46EVEN DEATH IS NOT TO BE FEARED BY ONE WHO HAS LIVED WISELY 9g 4 Gautama Siddharta (Buddha), 563-483 scr material life. He is known as the © Buddha [which means the “awakened one” in Sanskrit], and his followers, who became known as Buddhists, spread his ideas throughout South Asia and, in the late 3rd century CE, into China and thence to Korea, Japan, and Roman aristocrats led by Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius i consuls were elected by the | Tarquinius Collatinus [the king's popular assembly each year. Some time around 530BceE, Gautama Siddharta, a Hindu prince of Kapilvastu (now in Nepal), had a religious revelation and rejected his noble upbringing to embark ona quest for “enlightenment.” Six years later he received it and began to preach a way of moderate asceticism to gain release from the suffering of : Spring and Autumn period. From » the age of 15 he devoted himself : to scholarship, and the political © philosophy he developed reflects : the turbulent times. He taught © that the righteous man (or junzi) : must have regard to others and » inflict no unnecessary harm. Southeast Asia. © His philosophy, as developed Confucius (or Kong Fuzi) was ~~ by his disciples, taught respect for born around 5518CcE, in a period of § elders and became a cornerstone © political instability during China’s = of the later imperial system. cousin} won over the army and barred the gates of the city to : the king, who was deposed. : The coup leaders then » established a republic in which : supreme authority was held by : two magistrates called consuls. : The power of the consuls was _ limited by the fact that new jot AX \ Ot he Aceh Al i aw 2 wad “ vw THE GREAT CYRUS (r. 559-539 BCE) Little is known about the early life of Cyrus. He was the ruler of the kingdom of Pars when he led a revolt against his Median overlord Astyages. By defeating Astyages, Cyrus became king of the Medes. He then continued to expand Persian influence with the conquest of Lydia. Cyrus adapted local ideas about kingship to cast himself as an ideal ruler in the cities he conquered. Cyrus died in 539 Bce. Persian elite These archers from the palace of Darius at Susa were the elite of the Persian army, which included representatives from provinces as far off as Ethiopia and Afghanistan. o ‘ ¢ x e oi 6 {6 eo es RS a RG oo od Oe eS e OP Se? 0? \S G wre NS Sar 2 “4 S 3 < 2S 8 6 as Rea Eee & ol ECE Pom a OX eot® ge we oh 2 ata? eee ste goo ON” ok eB iP ae es Ae gw” 6 Oe phew Rigo Ca One eX Wn co a0 of OP $i pr cd A 2 gO Wo? oD Se A go GO? VK x heen GOK yt woh ge oe oP We o_O oh 2 soa FF go" oo! ase gk 0? oh” ORC Seas oe PO wes PF Se PO oA Me gah cde gl Fo Sc? We or AA so" ol er gt SS ree ©? oo Sa Re ON Ae aed Pe gor 2 Oo 0" é BP res BM Pre Ree coe! Ow <8 Py OF oo ot as OE dock OS ye cS e ESAS x Niet eo ww we RY e » Ss DS Ro So 0 se “o wt AS e? ye ge x Nan) tot eae oF sr" xi Cos oo a << Xo ON ek? oe Res NS CO © oko se ce % os ae wy gre corr = oh? iors eo os Ae sf ge. Ronee oo ERG ge oye OFS x? go RES WN 2" Ae 6 ci AF eh 9d) Or 30 Ode WONG? co Vee xe Oe Po Pr PE ne 8 ES wr PF go I” 9 cee oor CaO ORR xe os BO Oe Ae Me ses pro ee ol g oe oh Roe o ook RS we os oye elas Sgt oO Tew oor oh . Pe RS oe a <— of 47 snake-haired Medusa figure Medusa antefix DATE UNKNOWN This terra-cotta antefix—an ornament placed at the cornice of buildings or at roof eaves—is in the form of Medusa, the mythical creature whose gaze turned people to stone. swept-forward cheek piece leaf-shaped blade _ Corinthian helmet Spearhead 600-500 sce 600-400 BcE The Corinthian helmet, made Greek hoplites (armed from a single bronze sheet, infantry soldiers) carried was the most common type in a large thrusting spear, Greece, from around 750-300 ace. of which this is the tip. ANCIENT GREECE FROM THE FUNCTIONAL TO THE DECORATIVE, THE GREEKS PRODUCED ART OF GREAT BEAUTY Aphrodite, the goddess of love Bronze mirror 490-460 BceE This mirror is richly adorned with an image of Aphrodite flanked by cupids. While the Greeks created magnificent monumental art, smaller items such as jewelry, musical instruments, weaponry, and vases show the Greek love of intricate forms and decorative adornment throughout all periods of their history. fastening chain Greek art underwent a series of phases that were reflected in all aspects Sie 7, of artistic production, but particularly on vases. In the Geometric phase Ne a ~ a : : : In (c. 850-700 BCE), decoration was mainly composed of geometric forms, Me >, replaced in the Orientalizing phase (c. 700-6008CE) with floral and ere ‘ LS animal themes, followed by the more naturalistic representations al s Z of the Classical phase (from 600BCE) } Ly ae ° é é eG Bronze cymbals ; be 500-400 sce Gold earrings 420-400sBcE Greek cymbals are bell- or cup-shaped, and are often depicted on vases being % held by fauns or satyrs, or by women in These delicate gold filigree earrings depict boats containing sirens, mythical creatures whose beautiful voices lured unwary seafarers to their doom. Bacchanalian revels. Mirror lid and fibula 420-400 sce This silver fibula (brooch) and chain may have fastened together a cloak. The ornate mirror-back shows Aphrodite with the half-goat god Pan. cup-shaped form Gold brooch 650-600 sce This hawk-shaped brooch dates from a period in which Oriental (and particularly Egyptian) influences were strong in Greece. Aulos 400e8ce This wind instrument was originally a double one (one wooden pipe has been lost), played through a reed. silver mouthpiece finger hole 48 Ostrakon c. 475-470 8ce In Athens, influential politicians could be ostracized exiled) by public vote. The name of the politician each voter wished to be banished was inscribed on a piece of pottery. Boeotian horse and rider figurine 550 sce Boeotian figurine 400-200scE This terra-cotta figurine of a woman holding a jar comes from Boeotia, where a tradition of such sculptures began as early as the 8th century sce. The depiction of this horse and rider has an archaic feel about it, in contrast to the production of Boeotian terra-cotta workshops over 200 years later (see right) lotus and honeysuckle pattern ___ Attic skyphos 525-500 sce This drinking vessel shows a couple at their wedding standing ina chariot. The vase is painted in the black-figure style. pattern hero Hercules carrying Erymanthean boar —_/ double band of meanders lotus bud pattern top of foot and lower base painted black Athenian amphora 540-530BcE An amphora was a type of vessel used for storing wine. This one is decorated using the black-figure technique, which predates the red-figure method. Attic lekythos 480-470BcE Greek vases were often painted with mythological scenes. This black- figure vase shows the goddess Athena beating a giant to his knees. retrograde (right-to-left) inscription checkerboard Discus 600-5008ceE This fine bronze discus belonged to an athlete named Exoidas. After he won a victory in a sporting contest using it, he dedicated the discus to the gods Castor and Pollux. Attic askos 425-4008ce The askos was a type of vessel for pouring liquids such as oil, shaped in the form of a traditional wine sack. The design is in the red-figure style that became popular around 530 sce. RAEN AAR NRERAM Se Roa ————— Apulian pyxis 500-400ece Apyxis was often used for storing small items of jewelry and cosmetics. This south-Italian example is decorated with geometrical shapes. cylindrical neck Epichysis 375-340 BCE The long-spouted epichysis was a vessel used for pouring wine. This south-Italian vase has its base decorated with a pattern of white chevrons. 49 DO BATTLE IN THE SHADE. 99 Herodotus, ancient Greek historian, quoting words attributed to Dieneces, a Spartan, on being told that the P archers shot so many arrows they would conceal the Sun; from Histories Plebeians withdraw from Rome The departure of the plebeians (on the left in this engraving) threatened to split Rome irreparably, so the patricians (right) ceded some political power. THE GREEK CITY-STATES OF IONIA in western Anatolia had been subjects of the Persian Empire since Cyrus conquered Lydia, their = previous overlord, in 547 ace (see 550-501 ace}. In 499 ace, Aristagoras, the ruler of Miletus, set out to mainland Greece to recruit allies for a planned 600 PERSIA The Battle of Lade The lonian Greek navy fought hard at Lade, but the prearranged defection of the Samians to the Persians led to its utter defeat. uprising against the Persians. j Sparta rejected his pleas, but only Athens and Eretria sent forces. A failed attack on Sardis led the Athenian forces to return home. The lonians gradually lost ground to a Persian land offensive from | 497 ece. The fall of Miletus to the | Persians that year and the death of Aristagoras undermined lonian : unity and, after a great naval defeat at the Battle of Lade in 4948ce, the revolt fell apart. In Italy, the young Roman © Republic was rocked by social | dissent in 494ece when the plebeians (the lower social + groups) withdrew from Rome en masse in protest at their treatment by the patricians (the | higher social groups); they : threatened to set up an alternative | state. They were persuaded back only by official recognition of their : own representatives (tribunes). 8 s o xe S SS cS d° 3° SO oo s2? <0 One wert NF 09) a? 8! SS Aor es Po? ak FeO aM goo Oe es “sor on ae wit of A ye ek ow aS were Ro Ro or gh” og” gore’ eo oe oo eS gs Ae (oo? gh® *. See’ 9% no 2? “0? Se eX s CRS CPCS iD PF 0 we ee oe Soe Eg TS rh Cos w Se wee Ra This 19th-century painting shows the Spartan king Leonidas | (center, facing) and his men at the Battle of Thermopylae in 480ece. Thermopylae became a byword for heroic defiance against overwhelming odds. THE KINGDOM OF MAGADHA emerged as an important state in northern India under the rule of Bimbisara [r. 543-491 ace), friend and protector of Gautama Buddha (c. 563-c. 486 sce), who founded Buddhism {see 550-501 ece). Bimbisara’s son Ajatashastru (r. 491-461 ace} strengthened the royal capital at Rajagirha and built a center at Pataligrama on the Ganges River, which later became Pataliputra, the Mauryan royal capital. By conquering Kosala and Kashi, and annexing the Vrijji confederacy, Ajatashastru turned Magadha into the dominant power on the Ganges Plain. In China, the political system of the Spring and Autumn period evolved into the Warring States period (481-221 sce), in which seven main states engaged in a constant round of diplomatic THE NUMBER OF WARRING STATES animals were often the inspiration for a rhyton’s shape & : The Persian Empire enjoyed — maneuvers to weaken each other, periodically interrupted : by outbreaks of war. In 490 ace, Darius I (548-486 sce) of Persia decided to take revenge on the mainland Greeks for their support of the lonian revolt. Darius despatched a huge naval expedition under Artaphernes and Datis, which sailed fram Cilicia, landing first at Naxos Persian winged-lion rhyton vast wealth, as illustrated by everyday items suchas this golden drinking vessel. They directed huge resources toward the conquest of Greece. : before seizing Eretria, which had aided the lonians in 4998ce Although the Athenians appealed to Sparta for aid, the only help they received came from Plataea, which sent 1,000 reinforcements. The Athenians opted to march out to meet the Persians rather : than wait for a siege, on the » advice of their general, Miltiades (550-489 ace). In 490Bce at Marathon, the Greek hoplite (heavy infantry) formation advanced head-on against a far more numerous Persian force to THRACE MACEDONIA Black THE ATHENIANS ENJOYED EARLY SUCCESS under the direction of Cimon (510-450sce), wresting Eion on the Strymon River [in Pellae Byzantium win an unlikely victory. THESSALY mB Anatolia) from the Persians in Chastened, the Persian eres Abyds 476ece and then attacking expeditionary force withdrew from Artemisium 480: WEIS Carystos on Euboea [which had Greece after Marathon, but in Thermopylae 480__Y LYDIA submitted to the Persians} in 481 ece Xerxes | (519-465 ace] en eee 470sce. An atternpt by the island dispatched another huge Persian Pelaammeetee Anatolia of Naxos to leave the Delian army, which crossed over the Spartae League around the same time led Hellespont (near modern-day ORPREE to an Athenian expeditionary force Istanbul) and proceeded south that powerfully suppressed the toward Athens. Many northern The Greco- breakaway movement. In 469sce, Greckestatesict foeubent Persian wars Ribonisat t : Athenian treasury at Delos reek states chose to submit, Although the Crete pore lenian forces won a grea’ All members of the Delian League but Athens and Sparta patched together a league of southern states. In 480sce, a heroic defense of the pass at Thermopylae by the Spartan king Leonidas I, in which he and all his 10,000 soldiers died, bought time for the Athenians to evacuate. The Persians burned the city, but soon after, under the command of Themistocles (see panel below), the Athenian fleet inflicted a serious defeat on Xerxes's naval force at Salamis. Further Greek Persians possessed vastly superior numbers, the Greek forces were motivated to win crucial land and sea engagements. victories followed in June 479 sce, on land at Plataea in Boeotia and at sea at Mycale off the lonian coast. The Greeks then took the offensive, and during 478-477 Bce won a string of victories in lonia and Cyprus, which reversed most of the Persians’ gains. THEMISTOCLES (c. 524-460 8cE) A clever politician and strategist, Themistocles persuaded the Athenians to use the wealth of a silver mine discovered at Laurium in 483/2ece to double their fleet. However, after the naval victory at Salamis, he became the object of increasing jealousy from political rivals. In about 470 sce Themistocles was ostracized from Athens [exiled by public vote]. = Persian campaigns KEY Annexed by Persia Src Vittor) aaaineUGraere Persian victory 490-4798CE * Indecisive battles After the initial defeats of the Persians in 480-479 sce, Athens sought to formalize the league of anti-Persian allies. A treasury was Set up on the island of Delos in around 477 sce. The league's funds were to be deposited here and regular meetings were to take place. But this Delian League soon became little more than an Athenian empire, and Sparta and its allies refused to take part. 44 THE GREAT STRUGGLE HAS COME. 99 Herodotus, ancient Greek historian, quoting Pausanias, the Spartan commander, before the Battle of Plataea in 479BCE; from Histories victory over the Persians at the Eurymedon River on the south coast of Anatolia, establishing Athenian supremacy in the Aegean. Pericles (c. 495-429 sce), the Athenian statesman largely responsible for making Athens the political and cultural focus of Greece, tried but failed to prosecute Cimon in 463.ce, on a charge of having neglected a chance to conquer Macedonia. From this maneuver, Pericles’ vision and ideas of expansion for Athens were already evident. When the leading figure among the democrats, Ephialtes, was assassinated in 4618ce, Pericles, his protégé, swiftly took his place. Periodically, the Persians had tried to bribe the Spartans into diversionary attacks on Athens, initially to little effect. In 4648cE, a revolt of the Messenian Helots (unfree men) in the western Peloponnese further distracted the Spartans from any attempt to stem the rising power of the Delian League. The Messenians received little outside assistance, had to deposit funds at treasuries on Delos, but the contribution of Athens was the most important. : and by 462sce their last stronghold at Ithome had been reduced. Soon after, open conflict broke out | between Sparta and Athens and their respective allies. The First Peloponnesian War was inconclusive. It ended in 451 sce with a five-year truce, extended in 446sce to a Thirty Years’ Peace between the two sides. Meanwhile, the western part of the Greek world was becoming © increasingly important, marked by the rise of the Sicilian city-state of | Syracuse. Under a series of able © rulers (tyrants) that began with » Gelon [r. 485-478 ece) and his : brother Hieron (r. 478-467 sce), Syracusan forces subdued the neighboring city of Acragas and expanded territory around Catana. Although Hieron’s younger brother Thrasybulus was driven : out in 466sce, the Syracusans retained their dominant position in Sicily beyond the 450s sce. \ oa ot < oes? Ne C os x 2 oF eee mo Oe ore Rae ot get ae a B®? Oh 0 AW ne Orn 48 AP ao 0 oP ok Ae ow 40? WO we ous BP oF 8” & ee NO por er? cs Hoe a0 oe ee VFM af oo ee FOR OES SS ot! oe ee? A i) 16? 0 Raia a OP SE ce CE AOS soe oe® oor Of ae? B® 0 o 62° so ae do 28 ps Ow 9? Or OF we OH oe? A 60 AME de VS Fc? xx? pr ce oe? Ph Oren HF 0 Cas Se oe ¥ we a oe oS WP oo SSS CEN Sr 08 ‘aes RRC eg ee Pos ‘oo See aerate ar oar te De Fah 9 S oF ere ore ro oh een? a .ae or" ae se? oF ae Pos 3 of eee © & 0 oA & os A ze gt e CRO Ro © 2 ef G 2 cH 508? os SO?” KW 42? 36 Le eee ran’ So gok a ey Rah © ge Vg a PB yor WS Cas ee ee wee gh a) ee AP, KE of we MO So reOn ee. e $a SO Lee & ge oe tga tare 2 3 Sy ic or a Ce rc oe pee d 3 weer eye fe ee Pers we we yor ao? 2 oye” WE Sr ger g® — 4b? _ sok “0? SHa™ oF & oto oF Kr oh oP OS « wate os ea! a0 we BY No se ot” = E00 00 we oF ANF oo Bh se" er Wow 3 x6 oP os ¥ 3 PF 0" sr oi wot Dil IN THE ROMAN REPUBLIC, the two social classes—the patricians and the plebeians (see 500-491 sce)]— were still divided. The two sides came to an agreement in 451 ace, appointing a group of ten men (the decemviri) to govern Rome outside the normal constitution. In 449 Bce, the decemviri produced the Laws of the Twelve Tables, which formed the basis for all Roman law codes. Around 450sce in Central Europe, a new Celtic culture emerged, called La Tene, which supplanted the earlier dominant THE NUMBER OF TABLES OF ROMAN LAW Halstatt culture. Ruled over by a warrior aristocracy that buried its dead with swords, spears, and funerary chariots, La Tene had important centers in Bohemia [in what is now the Czech Republic] and around the Marne and Moselle rivers (in modern France]. In Oaxaca on Mexico's Pacific Coast, a new center arose shortly before 450 ace at Monte Alban. This proto-city, on a hilltop above the Oaxaca Valley, drew people from the surrounding agricultural villages. Monte Alban’s center housed large-scale public buildings—including truncated pyramids, great plazas, and ballgame courts—as well as elaborate burial tombs. Within 150 years, the population of Monte Alban would swell to around 17,000, making it the largest city in Mesoamerica. Zapotec figure from Monte Alban This elaborate ceramic deity is typical of the production of Monte Alban, which became Mexico's premier site in the 5th century ace. In the late 5th century, the Mexican city of Monte Alban began to build its public buildings—the ancestors of its later magnificent pyramids, shown here. ATHENS AND SPARTA HAD FOUGHT EACH OTHER BEFORE (see 451 sce). The Athenian Empire had the naval advantage as it included most of the island and coastal states around the northern and eastern shores of the Aegean Sea. Meanwhile, the city-state of Sparta led an alliance of independent states from the Peloponnese and central Greece, as well as Corinth, and had the strongest army. Despite the Thirty Years’ Peace of 446sce, tensions remained high between Athens and Sparta. The events that led to renewed 44 THE EMPIRE YOU POSSESS IS BY NOW LIKE A TYRANNY—PERHAPS WRONG TO ACQUIRE IT, BUT CERTAINLY DANGEROUS TO LET IT GO. 99 Thucydides, ancient Greek historian, relating a speech by Pericles to the Athenians; from History of the Peloponnesian War, II.63 hostilities in 430 sce began three years earlier, when Athens had intervened on behalf of Corcyra in a dispute with Corinth; the Spartans took it as a sign that Athens had breached the peace. An attack by Thebes, a Spartan ally, on Plataea, which supported Athens, was similarly taken by the Athenians to indicate Sparta was fixed on war. Athens, led by Pericles, achieved early success in the Peloponnesian War (431- 404.ce). In 426 8ce, the Athenians invaded the Peloponnese, and the following year landed a large SOCRATES (469-399 BCE) One of the greatest Greek philosophers, Socrates served on the Athenian Council in 406sce, but his challenges to conventional morality at a time of political uncertainty gained him powerful enemies. He refused to mount a conventional defense against charges of corrupting the Athenian youth and was sentenced to die by drinking the poison hemlock. force at Pylos southwest of | Sparta. Yet neither side could land a fatal blow and in 421 ace they agreed the Peace of Nicias, which was supposed to last for 50 years. The truce soon began to unravel. Corinth refused to recognize its authority, a pro-war leadership i emerged in Sparta, and a complex _ set of political maneuvers by Alcibiades (450-404.ce], the : newly dominant politician in © Athens, led to the renewal of the war in 4198ce. The following year, Sparta’s allies won a key victory : at Mantinea. Athens struck back Lis THRACE Byzantium ce # Abdera par @lhasos Sea of Marmara Thasos f @Acanthus Cyzicus ntidaea @ Aegospotami eiiampsacus’ 410 The Great Peloponnesian War The period of 431-404 ace saw the destruction of the Athenian Empire at the hands of a coalition of O Hah &o ‘ Lemnos ne PHRYGIA carta and its allies. p. C aoeae rd THESSALY BEE a AN a : Aegean Lesbdl mbracia { > Sea MITVENE™. ye Arginusae Leucas, 406 Phocaea ® Chateis Cephallenia Sertria i, 2 fiebes NONTA KEY ed NotiUt $f Ephesus Se %.... 407 Athenian Empire Zacynthi % > . hee idaurus ARIA Athenian ally 2 Miletus 3s Si i = parta and allied states cyclades o ss y 3 neutral territory Sphacteria ay 425 “2 #Chidus Athenian victory "° ee % Spartan victory odes PH @Lindus 2,800 ATHENIANS Spartans BATTLE OF SPHACTERIA 425BCE in 4168ce by capturing Melos—the only main Aegean island not in its possession—but fatally overreached itself in 415 ace with an expedition to Sicily, ending in the total destruction of the Athenian force by the Syracusans ° in 413.ece. The Spartans, meanwhile, established a fort at Decelea in Attica that denied the Athenians access to the rich silver mines. An alliance with Persia further strengthened Sparta’s Position in 412ece, and ayear later © the democratic regime in Athens 7,000 ATHENIANS BATTLE OF DELIUM 424BCE : was briefly overthrown. Democracy was restored the following year, and, although the Athenians won victories at Cyzicus in 4108ce and Arginusae in 406 ace, the total destruction of their fleet at Aegospotamii off lonia in 405 ce left Athens defenseless. The Spartans blockaded the city, : and, despite a determined resistance, the Athenians were » forced to surrender. Athens was deprived of its fleet and in 404 Bce 30,000 Spartans ATHENIANS SIEGE OF SYRACUSE 415-413 BCE In Magadha in India the Haryanka dynasty founded by Bimbisara was replaced c.4138ceE after the death of Ajatashatru (c.459 ace) and a series of ineffectual rulers. Shishunaga founded a new dynasty, which was responsible for overseeing the final transfer of the Magadha royal capital to Pataliputra. The Shishunaga dynasty lasted only 500 years. AFTERITS VICTORY IN THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR, Sparta found itself embroiled in a quarrel with Persia over whether the lonian Greek cities should regain their autonomy. Through the 390s sce, sporadic fighting and abortive peace talks diverted Sparta from a weakening position in mainland Greece. The “King’s Peace,” a definitive treaty with Persia in 386 sce, deprived the lonians of autonomy but allowed the Spartans to quash any threats to its supremacy. In 385.ce, they attacked Mantinea in the central Peloponnese and in 382 8ce occupied Thebes. Spartan power seemed unassailable. In Persia, the death of Darius II (r. 423-404 sce} was followed by a brief civil war, when Cyrus the Younger tried to overthrow his older brother Artaxerxes Il Etruscan tomb painting : (404-358 ece). Cyrus was : defeated and killed at the Battle : of Cunaxa in 401 sce, but in its | aftermath some 10,000 Greek £ mercenaries were left trapped in northern Mesopotamia. Under : Xenophon, the Greeks marched : to the Black Sea coast and | safety near Trapezus (Trabzon ) in modern-day Turkey), a feat : their commander immortalized : in his book Anabasis. In Italy, the Romans widened | their territory and annexed the 5 city of Veii in 396 sce, whose : submission represented the end » of any Etruscan threat. However, ¢,390ece, an army of Celts, who : had been attacking the Etruscan : city of Clusium, turned south, : defeated a Roman army at the | Battle of the Allia, and then took © Rome itself. This disaster haunted : the Romans for centuries. a pro-Spartan Council of Thirty was installed to govern it. The Etruscan language has never been deciphered, so it is through the frescoes in their tombs that much has been learned of their culture. tS re? ° med oe xo pe eee Qe é e ’ e ot ao eo ee ee 0 BEE LA? Bae RO OOH Re ns ot Le FF oO wer" pe? nh 3 xe Sars $ S$ © 2 8 © S) “ ee & oe ww? Oo x2 oh oN ° wr se Ro Le 3% os & se Wr se SOP? 20? a6 Po ot > 2 et es SO ® ore Wo ev" or ee ne? oo 3? 29 RO aoe IF wey? we PO Me CON en ONC a ee ce 6" Oey” x ~ hr oN ew ox of 54 700BcE-599ceE | Sutton Hoo buckle Made of solid gold and decorated with an interlaced animal pattern, the Anglo-Saxon Sutton Hoo belt buckle was found in a 7th- century ship burial in East Anglia, England. Prehistory Use of copper ore In western Iran and Anatolia, copper ore is ground or beaten into shape to make small objects such as beads. Copper ore 2600-2400 BCE Use of beaten copper plate Early copper smelting methods are refined, allowing the beating of copper while still hot into more complex shapes. sW Sumerian copper bull THE CLASSICAL AGE plain boss co nected with sliding catch on backplate animal interlace picked out in circles bird's head in profile central interlace pattern c. 1500-1200 BCE Refinement of bronze casting New techniques are developed for casting and adorning bronze vessels, such as decorating them by ang beating on the inside. cauldron c. 1500-30 BCE Purifying gold The ancient Egyptians learn how to separate pure gold from silver in around 1500 sce and begin to use it more extensively for decorative purposes. Funeral mask of Tutankhamun animal interlace with gi a biting head and tail c. 900 BCE-100 CE Using iron Ironworking spreads from western Anatolia, reaching Greece around 900 Bce and West Africa about 400 sce, enabling stronger tools and weapons to be made. c. 640-500 BCE Metal as money Metal coins (made of an alloy of gold and silver) are first used in Lydia (in present-day Turkey] around 640 sce. The ancient Greeks adopt the idea and spread it around the Mediterranean. circular plate at base of buckle tongue Weapon heads c. 100-700 Anglo-Saxon metalworking The Anglo-Saxons bring a new level of sophistication to metalworking, often using animal forms as decoration. Greek coin THE STORY OF METALWORKING Around 7000s8ce, naturally occurring metals, notably copper, began to be used for small items such as pins in western Iran and eastern Anatolia. These were made by simply grinding or beating the metal into shape. Heating copper to make it more malleable was probably discovered by accidentally dropping the metal in fire, but it was the introduction of smelting in a crucible around 3800sce that led to the large-scale use of metals. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ALLOYS About 3000sceE, the first alloy—bronze—was produced. Made by smelting tin and copper together in a crucible, bronze is stronger and more easily worked than either of its individual constituents, and it remained the principal metal for tools and weapons until the invention of ironworking around 1250ce. The technology to melt pure iron was not invented until the 19th century, so early iron objects were made by first smelting iron ore to an impure iron “bloom,” then separating out the iron pieces and welding them Since their earliest known use in the 8th millennium BcE, metals have played a crucial role in the production of a vast range of objects, and even today, with the availability of sophisticated polymers and composites, they still permeate every aspect of modern civilization. together in a furnace. This method of production continued until the introduction of blast furnaces in Europe in the 15th century. The Industrial Revolution in the 18th century brought new techniques and the use of coking coal in blast furnaces, but it was English inventor Henry Bessemer's invention of the Bessemer converter in 1856 that permitted the large-scale production of steel, a strong, high-quality, iron-carbon alloy. Later in the Industrial Revolution, further advances made it possible to produce other metals, such as aluminum, magnesium, and titanium, whose light weight and strength played a vital role in the development of the aviation and space industries. An alloy is a mixture of metals or of a metal with a nonmetal (such as iron with carbon in steel). Many metals occur naturally in alloyed form, but synthetic alloys were not produced until around 3000 BceE, when copper was melted with tin to produce bronze. The technique spread, reaching || | iw [ A THE MELTING POINT OF COPPER. WHEN COPPER I$ ALLOYED WITH TIN, =| fosteguctuyerig THIS DROPS TO 1,742°F = : a 700-800 Sword-making In Europe, sword-makers develop stronger swords by welding together successive layers of iron with carbon added, or by beating out thin iron strips then welding them together. 800-1300/1450 Christian objects in precious metals Medieval Christians make sacred objects, such as crucifixes and reliquaries, from gold and other precious metals, sometimes encrusted with gemstones. c. 15th century Weapons from cast metal Cast iron is developed. Because itis strong and can be used to make shapes such as tubes, it finds an immediate use in making artillery. The Verdun Altar 1950s Titanium aircraft Because of its high strength-to-weight ratio, titanium starts to be used extensively in military aircraft. It is now also widely used in commercial aircraft. Medieval cannon Lockheed Blackbird 1910 Aluminum foil The first aluminum foil is produced. It was made possible by the invention in 1886 of a method of mass- producing the metal by passing an electric current through molten ore. 1810 Tin can English inventor Peter Durand patents the tin can for preserving food. His patent was for a can made of iron and coated with tin to inhibit rusting of the iron. 1856 Bessemer converter Englishman Henry Bessemer invents a converter that enables large-scale production of high-quality steel. Bessemer converter Acarving showing the pharaoh Nectanebo |, founder of the 30th Dynasty, making offerings to gods, EGYPT HAD BROKEN AWAY FROM Persian control after the revolt of Amyrtaeus, who founded the 28th Dynasty in 4048ce. However, the Persians had not given up on Egypt. Nectanebo | established the 30th Egyptian Dynasty in 380BCE. He was able to repel a force sent by the Persians and their Greek allies in 373BCE. Persia was diverted from further attempts to bring Egypt to heel by the Great Rebellion of the Satraps in the 360sBCE. This rebellion was partially aggravated by the campaigns of Tachos, son of Nectanebo |, in Persian-ruled Palestine from 361-3608CE. Nectanebo Il (r. 360-343 Bce) succeeded Nectanebo |, and continued to meddle in the Persian civil wars. In an ill-judged intervention in 346 BCE, he sent troops to aid an uprising in Sidon (Lebanon). In response, Artaxerxes Ill of Persia marched 11,000 SPARTANS Battle of Leuctra At Leuctra in central Greece, the Thebans exploited the tendency of the Spartans to shift right by concentrating their attack on the left, enabling them to defeat an enemy with larger numbers than theirs. including the crocodile-headed Sobek. FORMED THE ELITE -MILITARY UNIT . THE SACRED | BAND OF THEBES : alarmed enough to revive the : Theban alliance and try to _ establish a Second Athenian : Confederacy in opposition to into the Nile Delta region in 343.8cE, and Egypt was defeated within two years. Now under Persian rule, Egypt was never = again ruled by a native dynasty. In Greece, the Spartan = occupation of Thebes, which had begun in 3828CE, was short-lived. : In3798CE, the Spartan polemarch (governor) of Thebes was assassinated, and the Thebans drove out the Spartan garrison with the aid of two Athenian : generals who arrived on their own initiative to help. In retaliation, the Spartans mounted an expedition under King Cleombrotus [r. 380-371 BcE). This expedition failed to retake Thebes, but it so alarmed the Athenians that they executed one general and exiled the other, and temporarily abandoned the alliance with : Thebes. The Spartans invaded the region of Boeotia in 378- : 377BCE but made little headway, although the Athenians were : Sparta. In 3758CE the Thebans, : Athenians, and Spartans signed a : “Common Peace,” but it broke : down almost immediately. The : Thebans then took the offensive, » aided by a newelite force of citizen : soldiers, the Sacred Band, which © consisted of 150 male couples. The : Sacred Band supplemented the mercenaries who largely fought Greek city-states’ wars by this period. Theban attempts to conquer the region of Phocis and retain dominance in Boeotia rankled with Sparta, and scuppered Athenian attempts to : broker a peace in 372BceE. At Leuctra in 3718Ce, the Theban army under the general Epaminondas fought a tactically brilliant battle to smash the Spartan phalanx. At Sparta’s : mercy just eight years before, : Thebes was now the dominant power in Greece. In Sicily, Syracuse continued to flourish under the strong rule of Temple of Thoth Situated at Hermopolis in Upper Egypt, the temple of Thoth dates from the New Kingdom but was renovated in the 4th century BCE. Dionysius | (402-367 BcE), who fought the third in a series of wars against the Carthaginians from 383 to 375BCce. At first, the war went badly for Dionysius, whose fleet was wrecked in a storm. Carthaginian efforts to mount an expedition to Sicily were hampered by plague in 379BcE and a revolt by subject cities in Libya, so that it was only in 3778CE that an army was landed. Dionysius, who had been campaigning against Carthage’s allies in southern Italy, returned to Sicily and crushed Mago’s force—10,000 are said to have died. Dionysius allowed the remnants to slip away, and they regrouped and returned the following year under Mago’s son Himilco to deliver a stinging defeat to the Syracusans. Both sides were war-weary and in 375BcE made peace, leaving Dionysius in possession of most of eastern Sicily and parts of southern Italy. The ruins of Thebes, Greece's dominant city-state in the 360sBcE. ALTHOUGH THE ATHENIANS brokered a general peace in Greece in 371BCE, the Thebans did not participate. Thebes built up a coalition of allies and invaded Sparta in 370-369 Bce. As a result, Messenia was finally detached from Spartan control, but further Theban success was hampered by the temporary deposition of Epaminondas, who was tried for allegedly sparing the city of Sparta in exchange for a bribe. Once Epaminondas was back in control, the Thebans won Persian backing for their anti-Spartan alliance in 3678CE, and a further invasion of the Peloponnese in 3668CE gained recruits for the Theban coalition. However, Theban successes relied too narrowly on the personality of one man, and when Epaminondas Ancient theater The Odeon was a temple built in the town of Messene, which was founded by Epaminondas of Thebes in 3678CE. aN st eee sf ° ro we x od \a ee re x me cS ee? of ar ae su Ae « x ow Oh ono OF go sh wore? ogrs) eed ROR CRC ate Foy Woe ae’ sre? at eS S ry we Ae 9% vg we fa ie a o » a oe see “a ew 3° Foss NS x @ x2 sO? BP” of xe ces oe Sos Org. Se? SF o> eee ol CK. we FN °K ge BF er oh BoB ack 6? 5 go ve ast nee C A x® ack CCC CES i oh Wd PF So AS ot or aero oe Cece BYP oP Moree Fos * 2 PEG s ° oe ro Xo ese ob oe Hee Foe? ge? BN co cok so a oe Scho ao? 08 yw eee A ge” ne ioW ant ar ger” werin® BH gO? SO? BO Po a’ Aree oe eM ak J OX oot! oO PH ey Sk, ae oo WT oan? IPP oto” ee g gr ™ 5 6 or rod g IS MORE TO BE FEARED THAN AN ARMY OF LIONS LED BY A DEER. 99 Attributed to Philip I, king of Macedonia, 4th century BCE was killed in battle in 362BCE, Theban power was rapidly eclipsed. | é In India, the Nanda dynasty began its expansion in the 370s BCE, and continued to expand until it was able to take power from the Shishunaga in 345Bce. The dynasty’s founder Mahapadma Nanda conquered much of north India, building up a huge army. He operated an efficient administrative system with centrally appointed tax collectors and undertook irrigation works. However, the deposition of Dhana Nanda in 321 BCE was followed by the absorption of the Nanda empire into the Mauryan empire. The state of Chu was the most southerly of China’s Warring States, centered on the Middle Yangzi River. Throughout the 5th century BCE it annexed a number of states, becoming the dominant power by 3808CE. In 366BCE a resounding victory by the state of Qin against the armies of Hannand : x y q y ‘THE AGE OF MAGAPADMA NANDA AT HIS DEATH Wei, followed by another defeat of Wei at the battle of Shimen in 3648CE led to Chu’s decline and the | shift eastward of Wei’s royal center : to Daliang. A rejuvenated Wei was strong enough to force the rulers of four other Warring States to attend its court in 356BCE. Wei's i supremacy was short-lived, and defeats inflicted on it by Qi armies at Guiling in 353BCE and Maling in 341 BCE reduced it to a Qi vassal. IN 359 BCE PERDICCAS III OF Macedonia died and his successor, Philip Il (r. 359-3378cE) began to transform the position of what had been regarded by other Greeks as a very minor kingdom. In 357BCE, he made his first major conquest, Amphipolis in Thrace. He became involved in the Third Sacred War (356-346 Bce), which was fought over perceived violations by Sparta and Phocis of the sacred oracle at Delphi, using this to cement his position as an important player in the power politics of central Greece and the Peloponnese. In the 340s, Philip strengthened his position in Thessaly and became involved in petty disputes between the city-states, as rival factions turned either to him or to Athens for support. In 340 BCE open war broke out between Philip and the Athenian-Theban alliance. Just two years later, at Chaeronea in Boeotia, Philip defeated the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus Mausolus was the Persian satrap (governor] of a region of south- western Turkey. After his death in 353 BCE his wife built a tomb for him, which became one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. J Ve oe os > ys? ye 8 noe ant aie™ ae hs od of WR ce OEY pov’ 3 gs co ON aw ee we on od aK Ap ok 8 eo oF PHILIP OF MACEDONIA (382-336 BcE) Philip I reformed the Macedonian army and forced the Greek states to joina League of Corinth under Macedonian control. After his return to Macedonia, he took a new wife, Cleopatra, but was stabbed to death at his wedding feast, possibly on the orders of his son, Alexander the Great, who stood to lose his position if Cleopatra bore another heir. Athenians and annihilated the Theban Sacred Band (see 380-371 BcE}. Macedonian power in Greece was now unchallenged. Rome’s steady expansion in central Italy had caused alarm among its neighbors. This led toa bitter six-year struggle with the town of Tibur from 360BCcE, among ° other conflicts. In 340BCE, a general war broke out between Rome and the Latins, who inhabited the modern region of Lazio around Rome. The Ey Romans had just emerged from a war with the Samnites, a people who inhabited the central Apennines, and the Latins took : advantage of Rome's exhausted : state to launch an attack. During : the first year of the war, at a battle : near Vesuvius, the consul Publius i Decius Mus is said to have | dedicated his body to the gods : of the underworld and then : undertaken a suicidal charge against the Latin ranks that | turned the tide of battle in the _ Romans’ favor. By 3388ce, the | Romans had defeated the Latin : League. The peace terms were : favorable, with many Latins being : granted Roman citizenship. The i League was then dissolved, and | many of the former Latin cities ' were absorbed into the Roman : state, moving Rome further : toward complete dominance of © central Italy. » In Peru, the Nazca culture | began around 350BcE. These people created mysterious geoglyphs, huge lines in the » desert creating animal and © abstract shapes, which cannot be : made out from the ground. & aot oe S Yoo ow 3° Ae og wer ge Ror er eS ee 5 xo gi? eo SOS” CO ee wn <3 et 3 pe BP og oP ak gh ee 00 Ae” oF? 0% J x Ss o 5 oF 0% oe Og oO 6% PP? i gf ) >) OM eho a 2 9° O Ker PP Ve? ye Sa sO ee? a oe cS et Wh ce So es 7 Despite being heavily outnumbered at Issus, Alexander the Great, depicted here on his horse Bucephalus, made brilliant use of his cavalry to wina stunning victory over King Darius III. AFTER THE ASSASSINATION OF PHILIP OF MACEDONIA in 336 BCE (see 355-337 Bc), his 20-year-old son Alexander [often referred to as Alexander the Great] became commander of the major Greek city states. The next year Alexander invaded Thrace, but a rumor that he had been killed caused a major : revolt centered on the Greek city of Thebes, supported by Darius III of Persia (r. 336-330 sce}. Alexander reacted swiftly; the Thebans were defeated and their city razed. The other states soon submitted. In 334BceE, Alexander hurried to Anatolia, where a Macedonian army was already established, totaling perhaps 43,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry. Although this figure was dwarfed by the forces of the local Persian satraps (governors], Alexander's cavalry smashed the lines of the satrap Arsites at the Granicus River in northwest Turkey. He pushed on toward the heart of the Persian Empire. In 333 6ce, at Issus, northern Syria, he routed an army Ruins of Persepolis i The Persian ceremonial capital of » Persepolis was burned to the ground | by Alexander's troops in 3308cE. © led by Darius III himself. In 331 BcE, | the Macedonians defeated Darius Ill again at Gaugamela [in © modern Iraq). The next year Darius was stabbed to death by Bessus, one of his generals. Alexander | now seemed to have acquired the whole of the vast Persian Empire. . Aristotle | The philosopher Aristotle was : employed by Philip of Macedonia as Alexander the Great's tutor. 4 AFTER HIS MURDER OF DARIUS, Bessus declared himself the new king of Persia [as Artaxerxes V], but some of the Persian satraps submitted to Alexander instead of Bessus. During 330-329 8cE, Alexander pursued Bessus into the easternmost regions of the Persian Empire, beyond the Hindu Kush and into Bactria. Finally, in Sogdiana, north of the Oxus River, the local nobles, led by the Sogdian warlord Spitamenes, betrayed Bessus and handed him over to Alexander. Once Alexander had continued his march north, however, Spitamenes revolted. It took Alexander a year of bitter campaigning to relieve the siege Alexander the Great’s conquests Alexander penetrated the farthest corners of the Persian empire. To cement his rule, he founded a series of new cities, almost all named after himself, notably Alexandria in Egypt. CONQUEST OF ALEXANDER Macedonian Empire 336-323ace -» Route taken by Alexander's forces svt Black 5 THRACE Byzantium’ Lewy MACEDONIA | eHeraclea | ARMENIA y. ordium CAPPADOCIA HELLAS R M6, Ephesus on Spartae Crete Mediterranean § Cyprus ~ 7 : of Macaranda [Samarkand] and : pacify Sogdiana, although the : fortress of the “Sogdian Rock” managed to hold out against the : Macedonian forces until 327 BcE. Alexander then crossed into the : Kabul Valley, and the following year, at the Hydaspes River, he © overcame the local ruler Porus. : His plans to push further into © India were stymied by his soldiers who, demoralized and disease- ridden, mutinied and demanded to go home. Part of the army : returned home by sea under + Nearchus, but a detachment : under Alexander marched : through the harsh Gedrosian desert, suffering heavy losses. His army reached central Persia early in 3248Cce, but Alexander, : still planning new expeditions © into Arabia, died of a fever at : Babylon in May 323Bce, at age 33. : Incentral Italy, the Samnites of © the central-southern Apennines, who had lost a war against the © Romans in 342-340 6ce, fought © them once more in the Second Samnite War (326-304 sce). The Alexandria Eschate Cs THE AGE OF -ALEXANDER'S _FAVORITE HORSE, _BUCEPHALUS, | WHEN IT DIED : advance of the Romans : into Campania after | their abolition of the . Latin League : in 338BcE "alarmed the : Samnites, and : the Roman placing : of a colony in their land in : 3288CcE and tensions over the : control of Neapolis {Naples} led _ to the outbreak of war in 326BCE. | In 3218ce, the Samnites defeated : a Roman army at the Caudine | Forks. The Romans were : humiliated by being forced to bow : down and “pass under the yoke” : (anarch made from their captured | spears). Four years of peace : followed before the Romans | renewed the war and, despite Cyrenew: H . : dogged resistance by the lemphis Ae : Samnites, finally emerged “4414 a Arabian : victorious in 304 BCE. ow Ne Sea H eo e 4 R 7 3 < oF o™ PO oe 20% sos LO IP oe? a Ke weet ge at 6H VE ge od? or OP oe ASS FS gr ss e Qo ee oF or gh ne 997 8" 0d oe a fd TE ge a® ae Aye i? oP WP *' we 0 BP Oh HE pe" en e Gg! = 9! cS ORCS) wos pear e®™ gneve soa Hae sGas ee Os < renee gS Pa eh ce of 9 Moe Weta F §Os8 WS oF R S oe oe < we Samnite-style helmet The Romans admired the Samnites as fighters. This gladiator helmet is based on the Samnite style of armor. ALEXANDER THE GREAT had not provided for an orderly succession after his death in 323 BCE, and his most experienced generals were also dead—except for Antipater, who had been left as regent in Macedonia. Alexander's wife Roxane was pregnant, and he had a half-brother Arrhidaeus, who was, unfortunately, mentally unstable. A clique of generals who were present at Alexander's deathbed— Ptolemy, Cassander, Seleucus, and Lysimachus— engineered a solution by which Roxane’s newborn son Alexander IV (323-310Bce} notionally shared power with Arrhidaeus, who became Philip Ill. In reality, this military clique carved up the empire between themselves and four other generals. Perdiccas emerged as the main power in the center; Antipater and Craterus took Europe; Antigonus Monopthalmus (“the one-eyed”) was given Phrygia; Ptolemy got Egypt; and Seleucus and Cassander were promoted to senior military commands. These generals, who became known as the Diadochoi (“successors”), then fought a long series of wars for dominance in Alexander's former empire, at first pitting the others against Perdiccas, who was assassinated in 320 Bce. Antipater rose to power next, but he died of natural causes in 318 BCE, leaving Antigonus to make a bid for power Battle of Ipsus Although slightly outnumbered, Lysimachus deployed his archers against his enemy's flank, causing Antigonus's infantry to flee in panic. against the four remaining principal players: Cassander in Macedonia, Ptolemy in Egypt, Lysimachus in Thrace, and Seleucus in Babylon. War between the parties raged inconclusively until 3118ce. But when it was renewed again in 3088CcE, it looked as if Antigonus might overcome all the others. Then, in 301 Bce, Lysimachus crushed the Antigonid army at Ipsus, and annexed most of Antigonus's former territories, so cementing 2 tripartite division of Alexander's empire between himself, Ptolemy, and Seleucus. In India, in around 320B8CcE, Chandragupta Maurya [r. c. 320- 297 .8cE) overthrew the last of the Nandas [see 370-356 Be] to become ruler of Magadha and the Ganges plain. An energetic ruler, he then gradually absorbed the outlying regions of the Nanda Empire, pushing his control as far as Gujarat and the Punjab. In 305Bce, he began a campaign against one of Alexander's successors, Seleucus, which ended in a treaty in 303 BCE, under which the Greeks ceded control of eastern Afghanistan and Baluchistan to Chandragupta. Having established the Mauryan Empire in 307 sce, Chandragupta decided to abdicate in favor of his son Bindusara [r. 297- 2728ce). He then retired to become a Jain monk, ultimately starving himself to death. In China, Meng Zi (or Mencius) (c. 372-289 Bce) arrived at the Wei court around 320BCE and rapidly earned himself a reputation as the “second sage” of the 44 TO THE STRONGEST! 99 Alexander the Great, on his deathbed in reply to a question about who would succeed him | Confucian tradition. His surviving | work, the Shi Ji, is written in the : form of dialogues with several : contemporary kings. Meng Zi © stresses the value of de [virtue] : for aking and, more practically, : recommends lower taxes, less : harsh punishments, and ensuring : that the people have enough to : eat. He believed that if a king » acted benevolently, everyone ' would want to be ruled by him, | and he would have no need of i conquest. Meng Zi’s benevolent : view of human nature had a : widespread appeal, and politically © his views were most influential in : the time of the Song dynasty © (960-1279 ce). Nd At age 20, Alexander inherited much of Greece from his father; by his death just 13 years later, he had extended this to cover a vast area from the Indus River in the east to Illyria in the west. He was a brilliant general but prone to acts of impetuous violence. His adoption of Persian court ritual alienated many native Macedonians, and his not naming an heir proved catastrophic. 2 Xx eo oo oF 5 ry Ss ee es c > ede wee & ‘ Oh ge es oe Sy ae ss soo a ee ot ox Por ge? yee oo oe &*, ay ge? us erick 3 “ sr os oe ares ae ee ee Ao) aS oe x as oe Reon Oo ree oe ot os eh ee’ PS oF x I Ss ee oS ce cans eS oe RS wn oS ee ms Wor Pe RO oh cs =e at te we ¢ yp Bis C3 Xi ge® Yor Ie CS aS we RY » ‘Ss Ff B®” yo a & s No Ss eo eS) ws ic) The Pharos lighthouse was built under Ptolemy Il in around 2808CE. It guided ships into Alexandria harbor at night. IN ITALY, A THIRD WAR broke out between the Romans and Samnites in 298 BCE, apparently provoked by Samnite harassment of their neighbors, the Lucanians. Despite two Roman victories in 297 BCE, the Samnites, this time allied with the Gauls, could still field a huge army against the Romans at Sentinum in 2958cE. Demetrius Poliorcetes (c.337- : 283 BCE], the son of Antigonus © (see 322-301 BCE}, was now : rebuilding his strength from bases : in the Aegean islands and in : Cyprus. He was able to exploit the » need of Seleucus, in Babylon, for : allies against the now overmighty © Lysimachus. In 2948cE, Demetrius | invaded Macedon, whose ruler : Cassander had died three years : before, leaving his two young 46 ANOTHER SUCH VICTORY AND WE Pyrrhus, king of the Greek state of Epirus, 279 BCE IN 281 BCE, THE APPEAL by envoys from the southern Italian city of Tarentum for protection against the Romans provided Pyrrhus, the king of the Greek state of Epirus, with a perfect excuse for fulfilling his ambitions and intervening there. He arrived with an army more than 25,000 strong, including war elephants. He beat the Romans at the River Siris in 2808Cce, but the Roman senate : 500 20 i | J At the Battle of Mylae, in 260BcE, Rome defeated the Carthaginian navy. IN INDIA, the accession of Ashoka (c. 294-232 BCE) to the throne in 268BCE had marked a watershed for the Mauryan Empire. On his father Bindusara’s death (see 322-301 Bce], Ashoka had to fight a four-year civil war with his brothers before he was enthroned. Around eight years later, he launched a campaign against Kalinga (modern Orissa}, which was so bloody that around 100,000 + sons to engage in a bitter civil refused to make peace. Pyrrhus people are said to have died. So : war. Demetrius then attacked vanquished another Roman army | KEY struck with remorse was Ashoka © Lysimachus's Asian territories, at Asculum the next year, but his | © Infantry ®@ Slingers at this slaughter, that he ever after © but in 292ecE he was brought losses were so severe that it @ Cavalry @ War elephants rejected war and promoted the : back to Greece bya revolt in seemed more like a defeat. After @ Archers Buddhist concept of dharma, THE NUMBER OF YEARS THE PTOLEMAIC DYNASTY RULED EGYPT The equally vast Roman army—at 45,000, the largest they had ever fielded—was threatened with defeat until the Roman consul Publius Decius Mus (d. 295 8c) dedicated himself and the enemy army as sacrificial victims to the gods of the underworld and led a suicidal charge that shattered the Samnite line. A string of Roman successes followed in 293 and 292BCE, and two years later the Samnites finally surrendered and their lands were annexed. Roman territory now stretched across the Italian peninsula to the Adriatic Sea. : : Aetolia. By 289BceE, Demetrius : had suppressed the revolt, but he : had lost most of his island bases : to Ptolemy's Egyptian fleet. He = retreated to Asia, and died in : 283BCE, a captive of Seleucus. Of Alexander's successors, © Ptolemy inherited the weakest : position. A naval defeat in 306 BcE : by Demetrius Poliorcetes confined : his ambitions temporarily to Egypt. = Yet here he shrewdly chose to : exploit the existing mechanisms _ of power, establishing himself as a pharaoh in the old style and i setting up an administration that : melded the best of Greek and : Egyptian traditions. By 2958ce, : Ptolemy's naval forces had = recovered and conquered much of » the Aegean. In Egypt, Ptolemy's » position was sufficiently secure : that, at his death in 2838ce, aged : 84, he passed the kingdom on to © his son Ptolemy Il Philadelphos : (r. 283-245.Bce], the second king : of a Ptolemaic dynasty that would rule Egypt until 30 BcE. invading Sicily, Pyrrhus retreated back to Epirus in 2758ce, nursing huge losses in troops and having made no territorial gains. The defeat and death of Lysimachus in 281 BCE in battle Pyrrhus of Epirus Despite his many campaigns, when Pyrrhus died he ruled little more than the kingdom he had inherited. | Pyrrhus's army The army that Pyrrhus took over to : Italy included a small number of war : elephants, whose presence caused : the Roman cavalry to panic and flee. » against Seleucus, and the latter's : assassination, soon led to : instability on the frontier between » the Seleucid Empire (now ruled : by his son Antiochus |) and the » Egyptian ruler Ptolemy II : Philadelphos. Finally, in 274 BcE : the First Syrian War broke out : between them. The Egyptians emerged victorious, annexing | parts of the Syrian coast and southern Anatolia. This position © was in part reversed by Egyptian : losses in the Second Syrian War » (260-253 ec) and then renewed » inthe Third Syrian War (246-241 bce), which was fought between the Seleucid Antiochus Il and » Ptolemy Ill. These three | debilitating wars left the Seleucids » particularly vulnerable to the now : growing power of Parthia. meaning mercy or piety. He set up a series of edicts carved in rock throughout the empire—many of them on pillars topped witha lion—promoting his adherence to dharma. Under his patronage the Third Buddhist Council met at Pataliputra around 2508CE, and Ashoka sought to export his ideas abroad, exchanging diplomatic missions with foreign rulers, such as Antiochus II of Syria and Ptolemy Il of Egypt. At his death in 2328ce, the Mauryan Empire had reached its greatest extent and seemed securely established. In China, Zhao Zheng succeeded his father to the throne of Qin in 246BCE. From 228BCE, ably advised by chancellor Li Si, Zhao Zheng unleashed a final war of conquest against the remaining Warring States (see 370-356 ace). Zhao and Yan soon fell to his forces, the Qin armies captured Wei and, in 223 BCE, overcame Chu. Only Qi still held out but, in 221 BCE, Zhao Zheng finally annexed it, leaving o “ xo! ms 3 OS Cees ww wo x . WS ed at ® Nee yor eS Od? RY 9p? ® 0° oF 2 Se yh oe ats =e 9h ror ote, Ros _ aoe Se _ ras rena? we Vt sect Sea, ar leer Crear are eet oF 90 OC ge Moet aA es RAINS oF ve oe 8 Par of we a & > Se? rae ww” s cS z SS we x an a we ex 2 a rg? at o oO “ > oO s as Ss Berar gogo ce gga ror ary SA OC oot ore We ao oer Poon ae® Fo * = ers Rts x, oO att ge Fo AK Se OX we ) Ko ost OS GE oF ae Cee go pr oO oe FS oor gp oo oH Me™ PSY a oe Bee oF pe hag? PF CF yo WO od 9? oc PRS Se crete ah od 9 eS Koes Qh? yoo RO x a 8 aS 61 THE NUMBER OF COMMANDERIES (REGIONS) SET UP BY EMPEROR OIN SHI HUANGDI IN 221 BCE, QIN SHI HUANGDI, the first emperor of China, divided his empire into 36 commanderies on the advice of his minister Li Ssu. The dispossessed aristocrats and nobles of Qin’s former enemies were moved to the capital Xianyang to keep them under close control. To further encourage a sense of unity, Li Ssu commissioned a single script and a standardized system of weights and measures made to the north and south in colonists were sent to the new territories. Shi Huangdi dealt firmly with opposition. In 213 8cE, he ordered the “burning of the books,” by which the writings of philosophers opposed to the Qin state were burned, and in 212BCE he had many intellectuals who opposed him brutally killed. Suppressing opposition This watercolor-on-silk painting shows Shi Huangdi, China's first emperor, overseeing the burning of books and the execution of scholars. In the aftermath of the First Punic War (see 264-241 BCE), = which Sicily and Sardinia lost, » Carthage turned its attention » to Spain. In 238.8ce, Hamilcar : was sent there, and he conquered : almost all of southern Spain. He : died in battle against the Oretani, a Celtic tribe, in 229 8cE, but by : then he had won a new empire : for Carthage anda strong power : base for his family, the Barcids. for China. Further conquests were & : Punic War, the Romans position 219 and 2146ce, and thousands of © : 225ece, the Celtic Insubres and Despite their victory in the First in northern Italy was still weak. In Boii tribes tried to drive them out. : Atthe Battle of Telamon, the Celts : were trapped between two Roman : armies and routed. Although the : Boii accepted defeat in 224sce and | the Insubres sued for peace two : years later, the Romans rebuffed them and pushed on for total victory. The king of the Boii was killed in single combat against a : Roman consul, and their capital | Mediolanum [Milan] captured. » The Romans established colonies » inthe Celtic territories in 218 BcE, including at Piacenza. A revolt led by Arsaces (see 265-241 BCE) in Parthava, a former satrapy in the northeast of : the Seleucid Empire, could not be + quelled by Seleucus II (r. 246-225 : BCE], anda separate Parthian : kingdom emerged in the region : of modern Iran. The Parthians gradually annexed more territory : to the west, especially under » Mithridates I(r. 171-138 pce). By | the early Ist century BCE, only a : small area of Syria was under : Seleucid control. i This rendition of Hannibal's crossing of the Alps is attributed to Italian artist Jacopo Ripanda. Ama: Second Punic War There were three principal theaters of conflict: Spain, Italy, and North Africa. By 203 BCE, the Carthaginians were confined to Africa. THE SECOND PUNIC WAR 218-202 BCE Carthaginian Empire 281BceE Carthaginian territory 2008ce Roman territory 2188cE Roman gains by 200scE Massalian territory 2188CcE Carthaginian victory % Roman victory Hannibal (219-202) Hasdrubal (208-207 ~* Scipio Africanus (210-206 and 204-202) ALARMED AT CARTHAGINIAN EXPANSION IN SPAIN, in 226 BCE the Romans sent an embassy to Hasdrubal—son of Hamilcar and the new Barcid commander there—and secured an agreement that the Carthaginians would not move north of the Ebro River. In return, the Romans pledged not to move south— although they did forge alliances with cities in the south, such as Saguntum. In 221 Bce, Hasdrubal was assassinated; two years later, Hannibal, his brother and successor, attacked Saguntum, rapidly leading to the Second Punic War (219-201 sce). With the prospect of the Romans sending one army to Spain and another via Sicily to invade North Africa, Hannibal gly, all 37 elephants survived the mountain passage. ATLANTIC OCEAN EUROPE ALPS Jolosa SI Placentia Numantia —“* — Trebia 2180 2, . “7@ Narbo.ee Massalia xo Iberian WS _4 “Pes HO 1 eenbigge yp Ariminum Peninsula ( _Tarraco Dow #Rhodae pofuctaeeerver Metaurus 207 a poriae Corsica oe ake Trasimene 217 Bacula 208 Dertosa Alergy : ipa 204 Ostia He LS Cannae 216 Gadesa Baleares Sardinia Tingis@ MalacaCarthago Med/¢o eCarales — Nova Urey Rusaddire® — Cartenna®. igi ooas ata Croton *Saldae Utica Yew Mylac AFRICA decided to strike first. He marched with 50,000 infantry, 9,000 cavalry, and 37 elephants into northern Spain, across the Pyrenees, through southern Gaul and—to the Romans’ astonishment—crossed the Alps. : Although he now had only around half the force he had started with, his presence encouraged the : north Italian Celts to revolt and, at Trebia in late 2188cE, he routed a Roman army. The following year he smashed another large Roman force at Lake Trasimene, killing 15,000 : Battle of Canae Some 35,000 Romans survived the battle of Cannae, but half of those were captured by the Carthaginians, and many were sold into slavery. 2E@%Rhegium * Zama 202 & rthage ‘SyractiSe Hadrumetumit=203._. S Melita ° 2 *Leptis Magna Charaxe, : Romans—including one of the : consuls. Faced with many : defections among the allied : cities, the Romans turned to : delaying tactics to hold Hannibal © at bay. But this was a temporary measure, and the Romans : suffered one of their worst ever | defeats at Cannae in 2168ce, when » 100 a 50,000 casualties 2 80 :< 3 6,000 2 60 casualties be iz 5 40 w @ o 20 ira Roman Carthaginian TROOPS HANNIBAL (247-182 BCE) A brilliant tactician, Hannibal's string of victories against the Romans from 2188CE was. not matched by the strategic judgment to convert them into final victory. Following the surrender of Carthage in 201 BCE, Hannibal served as the city’s suffete (chief magistrate] until the Romans had him exiled in 1958ce. He then offered his service to a succession of Rome's enemies before poisoning himself in Bithynia. Hannibal's army massacred up to 50,000 of them. But Hannibal did not march immediately on Rome, and his campaign lost momentum. Although Hannibal captured much of southern Italy, including the key city of Capua in 211 BCE, by 212BcE the Romans had raised 25 fresh legions and stood ready to carry the war back to the Carthaginians. WHEN THE FIRST QIN EMPEROR DIED IN 210BCE, resentment against his autocratic rule erupted in a series of peasant revolts. A number of new kingdoms broke away from the center, while the anti-Qin forces found a talented military leader in Xiang Yu. In 208 BcE, Li Ssu was executed and anew army, led by Liu Bang, a man of peasant origins, emerged to challenge the Qin. By 206 &cE, the Qin Empire was fragmented and Xiang Yu and Liu Bang were at war with one another. In 202BCE, Xiang Yu committed suicide after being defeated at Gaixia. With no one left to oppose him, Liu Bang had himself declared emperor as Gaozu, the first ruler of the Han dynasty (see 200-171 8ce). With Hannibal making Little headway in southern Italy, the Romans embarked on a policy of picking off the allies of Carthage. Their first target was Philip V of Macedonia, whose attacks on Illyria in 215 BCE had provoked the First Macedonian War (215-205 BCE) with Rome. In 211BCceE, the Romans allied with the Aetolians, who fought the Macedonians on land while the Romans launched naval attacks. Philip's invasion of Aetolia in 207 BceE forced the Aetolians to sue for peace the next year, and though the Romans sent fresh forces in 205Bce, the war ended with a recognition of the status quo between the two sides. In Spain, the Romans had retaken Saguntum in 212BCE, but a disastrous defeat the following year in which both consuls died looked set to destroy the Roman o a se On 9 exo ee goes Xe Po os © ot SE ae oN eS AP 9% 0? FS oe? After his death, the First Qin Emperor was buried in a vast mausoleum, in which an army of 8,000 terracotta warriors, each around 6ft 6in (2m) tall, were placed. position there. The Roman senate sent the young general Publius Cornelius Scipio {c. 236-183 BcE) to Spain, where he captured the Carthaginian capital of Carthage Nova. In 2068Cce, he crushed a large Carthaginian force at Illipa. In 207 BCE, Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal was defeated and killed at the Metaurus River in northern Italy, denying Hannibal crucial reinforcements. By 2048CE, many of Hannibal's south-lItalian allies had deserted him, and when Scipio landed with a Roman army at Utica in North Africa, the Carthaginians recalled Hannibal to head off a threat to Carthage itself. The Romans offered relatively lenient peace terms, but the Carthaginians rejected them, and Scipio captured their towns one by one. Aided by the Numidian prince, Massinissa, Scipio : fleet was reduced to a mere 10 : ships; they were not allowed to make war outside Africa at all, » and inside it they needed Roman : permission to do so. An annual : tribute of 10,000 talents payable : to the Romans completed the humiliation of what had once been Rome's greatest enemy. defeated Hannibal's last army at | Zama in 202 BCE. The peace terms the Carthaginians now had to accept were much harsher. All of their territory was forfeit save a band around Carthage itself; their | The Continence of Scipio Scipio was noted for his mercy. In : this 19th-century painting, he is seen handing back a captured : Carthaginian woman to her fiancé. a? R re? 0 Roms Ok sor" og? ea PO) I Xe 9? oe CE ROO Hc Sree SEN s XK ae a xo 64 700 sce-599 ce | THE CLASSICAL AGE owl, the sacred bird of Athena crescent symbol in post-490 BCE coins __ Athenian coin The Athenian silver tetradrachm has an image of an owl on one side and a helmeted head on the other. It was also stamped with the Greek letters for “ATHE” to identify the city of its origin. 1200 BCE Shells as money Beginning from the Maldives, the use of cowrie shells as money spreads throughout the Pacific, and, by the 19th century, 465-454 BCE Greek coins Almost every Greek city-state issues its own coinage, often with the name of the state inscribed on it. Silver replaces electrum as the into Africa. Cowrie shells main metal used. Prehistory 1000-500 BCE c. 640-630 BCE Lydian coins 27 BCE-14 CE Cattle as capital Tool money First true coins Augustan aureus Prehistoric people use cattle as money, with animals such as sheep or chickens sometimes acting as small change. In China, common tools are cast in metal, punched with holes (for stringing several together], and used as money. The state of Lydia produces the first true coins, made of electrum {an alloy of gold and Emperor Augustus reforms the Roman coinage system and issues a new version of silver) and stamped with the standard gold coin, Knife an image of a lion or stag. Gold the aureus, worth money aureus 25 silver denarii THe StORY.OE As societies became more complex, a need arose for a uniform medium of exchange to acquire goods. Money was created to fulfill this role, and it evolved from cattle to precious metals, and finally, to coins and bank notes. Today, money is exchanged more abstractly, through credit cards or electronic transfers. The earliest forms of money—used in ritual exchanges (for example, as a dowry) and in paying fines—included physical items such as cattle. In the 4th millennium sce, the growth of trade in Egypt and Mesopotamia led to more compact and portable forms of money. For thousands of years, precious metals were used, often in the forms of bars and ingots. Babylonian king Hammurabi's law 100 90 80 70 60 PERCENTAGE OF SILVER 0 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 YEAR The debasement of Roman coins Due to inflation, excessive expenditure, and weak control of minting, the purity of the Roman denarius fell from around 90 percent silver under Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-180) to 4 percent during Gallienus’s rule (r. 260-268). code mentions loans paid in silver. In 6408ce, in the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor, the development of money went a stage further with the invention of coinage, which later spread to the Greek world. By the Roman era, a tri-metallic system had been adopted, with coins of gold, silver, and bronze (of least value} circulating across the empire. All had the head of the ruler stamped on them, for propaganda as well as fiscal use. EXCHANGE NOTES In 1189, paper money came into use in China during Jin rule. Notes could express larger denominations and, therefore, were more convenient than coins. Gradually, government-backed banks began to issue notes, which were, in theory, exchangeable for an equivalent amount in bullion (a system known as the Gold Standard). However, the economic crisis following World War | forced countries to abandon the Gold Standard. Subsequently, the “real” value of notes and coins became nominal, relying instead on a sense of trust that they could be exchanged for goods. The growth of credit cards from 1950 took this a stage further, as the purchaser passed on nothing save the promise of payment at a later date. THE STORY OF MONEY The growth in paper money in Europe after the Middle Ages was fueled by the needs of merchants. Traders would deposit funds ina bank in one city and receive a promissory note, which allowed them to withdraw the amount in any other city where the bank hada branch. Great Italian banking houses, such as the Medici, were rich enough to fund the military campaigns of European kings through their loans. 806-821 Paper money In China, Emperor Xianzong issues the earliest bank notes during a period of copper shortage. The Jin dynasty issues the first true bank notes around 1189. Song dynasty note 1158 Making change Henry Il of England creates high-quality coinage, based ona silver penny, with across design that will last over the next 100 years. Henricus penny 1519 Thalers Coin minted from silver found in the Joachimsthal mine, Bohemia, becomes standard in the Spanish and Austrian Habsburg empires. 1694 First bank note Joachimsthal thaler 17th century Modern check gio By the 17th century, the use of oa oe” of checks, often backed thin ee” a) by goldsmiths, becomes J $ widespread in sty - Europe. < io” ; Lae! * whe _ British check Qe” 2 from 1659 The Bank of England is founded to fund England's growing national debt. It issues its first bank notes, backed by the bank’s own gold reserves. 1949 Credit and debit cards The first credit cards appear in the US in 1949, By the 1980s, debit cards, which operate as electronic cash (without deferred payment) appear. Credit cards 1862 First dollar bill The US Treasury issues the first dollar bills for national circulation. These are known as “greenbacks” for their vivid green color. First one dollar bill ~ ho ul The royal entourage of Gaozu, the first emperor of tl Gaozu was one of the few Chinese rulers to come from a peasant background. THE FIRST HAN EMPEROR OF CHINA, GAOZU, died in 1958CE, when his successor, Hui Ti, was just 15. Hui Ti fell under the sway of his mother, the empress Lu, who took power for herself on his premature death in 188 BCE. Under her rule China was invaded by the Hsiung-nu from the north and the kingdom of Nan-yueh to the south, and it was only under Gaozu’s grandson THE NUMBER OF REGIONS THAT MADE UP | HAN CHINA i Wen Ti (r. 180-157 Bce) that stability was restored. By 1438ce, the number of commanderies (regions) under central Han control had risen from 13 to a total of 40. In Japan, the Middle Yayoi period (c. 200-1008ce) saw an increase in population—possibly to as high as 600,000 people—and Yayoi vase The Yayoi period in Japanese history (c. 300 BCE to 250CE) is named for the site near Tokyo where its pottery was first found. : the beginnings of political © consolidation in central Japan, © especially around the lower Nara © basin [near Osaka). In India, the Sunga dynasty : took power in Magadha in 1856ceE, : when its founder Pusyamitra Sunga [r. 185-151 Bce), a former geometrical patterns and shapes he Han, depicted in the mountains of China. : Mauryan general, assassinated » the last Mauryan ruler (see : 2658cE). He is said to have persecuted Buddhists, marking : the beginning of the religion's : decline in its Indian homeland. : He also fought a long series of : wars with Magadha’s neighbors, including the Satavahanas, the Kalingas, and the Indo-Greek : kingdoms of Bactria. Bactria (in modern Afghanistan) : had broken away from Seleucid control around 275BCcE, but a series of Greek kings continued to rule there, starting with Diodotus around 250 sce. Another Indo-Greek dynasty emerged in India, and became powerful under Menander I [c. 165- 130BcE}, an important patron of Buddhism. Under the Indo-Greek kings, a new school of art emerged around Gandhara, which fused Buddhist iconography and Greek naturalism. Gradually, these easternmost Greeks came : under pressure from Scythian and Yuezhi nomads and in 125BCE Bactria collapsed. The last Indo-Greek kingdom of the Punjab survived until 10ce. The Roman victory against _ Philip V of Macedon (see 210 Bce) in the Second Macedonian War (200-197 sce) did not lead to permanent acquisitions in Greece, and the Romans withdrew their army in 194 BCE. After the death of Philip V in 179 BCE, his son Perseus presided over worsening relations with Rome, and in 171BCE a Third Macedonian War broke out. Initial Roman | campaigning achieved little except the alienation of their Greek allies, but a more disciplined approach under the consul Aemilius Paullus (see 1708ce] yielded better results. » 3 0° Oo 2? o > or SH ye Ry Ne Sie ss oe Rs F ae s oO xe = So 3 or, ot Wo J sare go cee? oo ont an o ace ee ok 8 — ser 9 ey to Bot SO » * “ oe os oO a eh Se Coe) es os ot os PE HE AT dl 3 yo? RS EG PET eG _ cod oh FS 8 . R ee eer oe Spe ah lt mee s 1a aS Reo yak co? PEF oH PC ee Se Pier Wr” wl om iy a e™ OAS gto wel e . swat wi He os a KS RS 4 This wall painting shows Judah Maccabee’s revolt in Jerusalem. THE THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR ended In 1688CcE, when Paullus defeated Perseus at the Battle of Pydna. A purge of anti-Roman elements swept through the Greek cities, and Macedonia was broken up into four republics to prevent it recovering its strength. In 150 Bce, Spartan attempts to get the Romans to intervene ina quarrel with the Achaean League [a group of Greek city-states) coincided with an anti-Roman revolt in Macedonia. By 148 sce, the Macedonians had been defeated and the Romans turned their attention to the Achaeans. The Roman consul L. Mummius quickly routed the Archaeans and took Corinth, which he razed to the ground. The various leagues of Greek cities were dissolved and Greece lost its independence, becoming the Roman province of Achaea. 50 40 Captured 30 20 NUMBER OF SOLIDERS [IN 1,000s) 0 Romans Macedonians COMBATANTS Battle of Pydna Philip V of Macedon’s army was completely destroyed at the Battle of Pydna. The Romans killed 20,000 Macedonians and captured 11,000. After the end of the Second Punic War, in 202 BCE, the Romans had allowed their ally King Massinissa of Numidia to encroach on Carthaginian territory. The peace conditions that ended the war forbade the Carthaginians to wage 44 CARTHAGE MUST BE DESTROYED. 99 Cato the Elder, Roman statesman war without Roman approval. Unable to act, the Carthaginians were reduced to sending embassies to Rome to protest Massinissa’s behavior. However, Rome sided with its ally, and one Carthaginian embassy in 162BCE even resulted in Carthage being : Carthaginean tophet A memorial stone from the tophet : (cemetery) at Carthage, showing Tanit, the goddess of the heavens. made to pay an annual fine of 500 talents. In 151 BCE, the Carthaginian government sent a : military force to relieve a town that had been besieged by Massinissa, and the Romans reacted by : declaring war. This was the Third © Punic War (149-146 Bce). Rome's war was encouraged by the anti-Carthaginian senator Cato the Elder, who made a series of speeches to the Senate calling for the destruction of Carthage. The first two years of the Third Punic war saw ineffective Roman attacks on towns around Carthage. In 147BCE, a new commander was appointed, Scipio Aemilianus, who transformed Rome's fortunes in the war within a year. In 167 BCE, the Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV outlawed Jewish religious practices in Judaea, leading to the revolt of Judah Maccabee and his brothers in 1648ce. Judah Maccabee entered Jerusalem, reconsecrated the temple, and reestablished Judaism. The Seleucid kingdom then continued to decline [see also 2808ce), with the overthrow of its ruler Demetrius | in 150 BceE by Alexander Balas rapidly leading to the loss of the key satrapies (provinces) of Media and Susiana. After the overthrow of the last king in 507BCE, Rome became a republic, ruled by two annually elected consuls. Over time the consuls came to be supported by other magistrates (praetors and quaestors], and tribunes of the plebs who had a special role in protecting the rights of the lower orders. Later elections for the consulate became bitterly contested as the office provided great potential for enrichment and personal and family glory. After Augustus became emperor in 27 8cE the office of consul lost any real power, being increasingly awarded to imperial favourites. a Py & or ok 5S Sas Be go” a 2 ie x0? 60% We ee SX ye oF se of shee Jo ins geet “oS S Canes S S eye Sar J BE oh Age Go ws {ooh ee ea Oe ge Sore? Cae 3 f oF <3 G os es sos PO Boe COs oe 2 o as oe abe Ko o® we or ec Ss S a se? oo : S a aot s Rs FS go Wr oF Ie ee! so" 48 IT coh ® eae a wed ¥ es oi The ruins of Carthage, which was burned and ritually cursed after its capture —_ in 146 BCE. A new Roman town was founded near the city around 48BCE. 44 | SHUDDER TO THINK THAT ONE DAY SOMEONE MAY GIVE THE SAME ORDER FOR ROME. 99 Scipio Aemilianus, Roman general and consul, on giving the order to burn Carthage, from Plutarch’s Apothegmata IN CHINA, RAIDS BY NOMADIC HSIUNG-NU TRIBES from 1778CE gravely threatened the Han dynasty’s northern borders. In 139.BCE the imperial envoy, Zhang Qian, set out to Central Asia to seek out possible allies against the Hsiung-nu. His epic journey helped scout the way for Chinese expansion as far as Dunhuang, and the foundation of a number of new Central Asian commanderies by 1048ce. Zhang Qian was held captive by the Hsiung-nu for some years during his journey before he was able to make an escape. Under emperor Wu (141-87 8ce) the Chinese launched several offensives against the Hsiung-nu, particularly in 121BcE and 119BcE, after which the frontier was quiet for almost 20 years. In the Near East, the shrunken and near-helpless Seleucid realm (see 1708CcE) was riven by civil wars and prey to interference from the Parthians, the Hasmonaeans, and, increasingly, the Romans. In 142Bce, the Maccabees succeeded in wresting Jerusalem from Seleucid control and established a Hasmonaean kingdom, with Jerusalem as its capital, under which a Jewish dynasty ruled until Jerusalem was captured by the Romans in 63 BCE. On the Iberian Peninsula, the Romans had conquered most of » southern Spain and parts of » Portugal {where the Lusitanians © vigorously resisted them] by 1748ce. A revolt by the Lusitanian leader Viriathus from 147BCE was joined by several Celtiberian © tribes in 144BCE. This rebellion : petered out after Viriathus was murdered in 140BCE. In 133 BCE, + Numantia, the main center of the revolt, finally fell to the Romans after a bitter siege. Its population © was sold into slavery and Rome was left in control of all of Iberia, except the far north of Spain. The Third Punic War came to an end when Scipio Aemilianus blocked Carthage’s harbor then launched a successful attack on the city itself in spring 146 BCE. : The last Carthaginian defenders died in an inferno in the city's main temple. The defeat of | Carthage brought its 118-year struggle against Rome to an end. : The Romans burned the whole © city and deported its population to prevent any Carthaginian revival. we Doge Ore: , OF ee ge Ao oe! a Oe Poe a ere PSP deo who oe Coe SEO oe HE a ow Fe eis Roan Cs DE oan: Yo?" .o CRs ONE eR Wh 03? a x? so we WP Pe" Sy 0300 Gor CO oee® NS NEG x Coe ver « & a ae ios ye OPP? gh we aoe mea ge WOE ow ee P oe OP et a cad SO 99®ge? o® Ca oe ws & S o es oo oe a eee PAM, ah DO? 6 G0 hh co Wa w cS ence Maiden Castle hill-fort in Britain underwent several phases of rebuilding after it was begun around 6006CE, reaching its final form about 500 years later. AFTER HIS VICTORY AT VERCELLAE, (see 110-91 BCE) Marius became Rome's dominant politician, but the brutal behavior of his ally Saturninus, tribune of the plebs, provoked the Senate. Political violence flared, and in 1008cE Marius had to march an army into Rome. Saturninus was killed in the ensuing riot. As Marius’s power waned, discontent rose among Italians without Roman citizenship. In 91 BCE, this erupted into the Social War. A protégé of Marius, Lucius Sulla (c. 138-78 Bce), took a key role in suppressing the revolt, which was largely over by 88BcE, albeit with some concessions offered by Rome to the rebels. Sulla was elected consul in 88 BCE. That same year, while waiting to sail with his army to Greece to counter the threat posed by the king of Pontus, Mithridates VI (134-63Bce], Sulla heard that the 70,000 SPARTACAN REBELS 6,000 spartican rebels crucified The rebellion by Spartacus Crassus crucified slaves along the Appian Way, which led to Rome, as a warning to any others who might plana similar insurrection. Senate had voted to put Marius in charge of the campaign. Enraged, Sulla entered Rome with his troops and seized power. He moved against Mithridates in 89BcE, and had driven him out of Greece by 848ce. Sulla returned to Rome, defeated his remaining opponents {including the aged Marius], and was appointed dictator in 82.8CcE. Sulla took savage revenge on the Marians, packed the Senate with his supporters, and curtailed the powers of the tribunes. Anti-Sullan forces regrouped around Quintus Sertorius, who had fled to Spain. After Sulla died in 788Cce, the Senate sent Pompey to deal with Sertorius. His military efforts were ineffective; only the assassination of Sertorius allowed Pompey to return victorious to Italy in 71 cE. In 73BcE, a slave revolt led by the gladiator Spartacus broke out near Naples and grew into the most serious revolt Rome had ever faced. Eventually, the rebel slaves were trapped in southern Italy and defeated by the Roman general Marcus Licinius Crassus in 718CE. By the 1st century BCE, the Celtic peoples of southern Britain had started to expand their existing hill-forts into oppida (“towns”) that were defended by extensive fortifications. The greatest oppida were formidable obstacles to attackers and some were royal capitals, complete with palaces. Sacred offering This Ist-century BCE British Celtic shield was discovered in the Thames River, where it had probably been thrown as an offering to a river god. y io ws ow 3 Fe as < a sow e Se gp Set oo x 05 99 S pe OS™ es OS rae” Roe ew 02 Ca SOS ot s Fae? aE aso” Pe rer FN es oe oe a oe a) yor os Ra 3 we ww ahhas® © se? ec Cone ox é RY $ S) x es ¢ on e X os got oF or =e & 5 aS ye oo xe ic” ees ond ec? =e Se ene ox 4 Se © ot So Boe yo ese ws o Rn I aw S hae Oe 2 QW" gS wer es ack NP? OS PPO” eer D Pit a gh oo? Ca arc Se or eC oO se ‘ eo ss o > so & ws & ‘3 oe ol ae & Ho - oe” Ss pee aE oh oe” Cae wor w or s @ Mound City, Ohio contains a cluster of more than 20 Hopewell earthwork burial mounds. AFTER POMPEY’S RETURN TOITALY : {see 90-71 BCE), he was elected consul for the year, despite still being below the legal minimum age. When war broke out with Mithridates of Pontus again, the Romans, under general Lucullus, forced Mithridates to retreat to Armenia, which was ruled by his son-in-law Tigranes. However, Lucullus's troops mutinied in 68BCE, and Pompey was sent to replace him. Tigranes surrendered and Mithridates retired north of the Black Sea. Having achieved his aim, Pompey entered Syria, where © he deposed the last Seleucid king, and then captured Jerusalem. In China, the Han Dynasty retreated from modernizing and Xuandi(r. 74-49 ce). The Huo family, which had dominated the government for decades, was removed from power, and its leading members executed. Government expenditure was cut, and aggressive expeditions Hopewell bird Clay pipes, often in the shape of birds, are one of the most characteristic products of the Hopewell culture. -THE NUMBER _OF MILITARY -TRIUMPHS AWARDED TO POMPEY _ in Central Asia were replaced by the establishment of small, permanent colonies. In Mexico, the city of Cuiculco in : the south of the Valley of Mexico | was destroyed by a volcano some policies under Zhaodi (r. 87-748ceE) © : disappearance opened the way for time in the 1st century BCE. Its Teotihuacan, to assert its control : over the whole valley and become : Mexico's dominant power for : more than 500 years. By the end of the 1st century : BCE, the Adena peoples of Ohio, in eastern North America, were © beginning to develop into the : Hopewell culture. These people : lived by hunting and gathering, but they also built large, elaborate burial mounds for their chieftains. x OA wf oe? se ye 00? x sy oe s a oye ye oe ort 7 a yor" 2? 1? 48% 207 03 FS o8 wr ww el oe? << BO? 3S Rs oy xc Se ae A Roane ss Os” oS 8 Wa Pree’ Be ae? oo x (> of et > 2 wy oe oe me ra Aer & Bors 0" re nee Bo 58 Kt ae 9% go 95 es, 891 70 O° 8 xo 92 OP) 9 ie & ‘Sy Nid of A Ss ast rue yee ) oe Co SS oe oe Areconstruction of the Roman ramparts at Alesia, where Caesar forced Vercingetorix to surrender. GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR BECAME CONSUL OF ROME for the first time in 59Bce. Having served a term as governor of Spain, he was popular among the equestrians (wealthy nonsenators], but resistance to him from the Senate [and the obstructiveness of his coconsul : area of southern Gaul. He took » advantage of the migration of the » Germanic Helvetii across Gaul : toward Italy to cross over the Alps : and defeat Ariovistus, the : Helvetian king. Caesar returned to : Rome, but his deputy, Labienus, © stayed in Gaul and the following | year he pressed on to conquer the © Belgae of northwestern Gaul. By Bibulus) led him to join with Pompey and Crassus, and the three : 55ece, Caesar had subdued most dominated Rome © of Gaul and had acquired a vast until 53BcE : new province for Rome, without as the “First Triumvirate.” : ever receiving any approval : from the Senate. In 586ce, In 568ce, an anti-Roman revolt Caesar was broke out among the Veneti of appointed northern Gaul, apparently supported by the Celtic tribes of Britain. Caesar responded by crossing over to Britain in 55 BCE with two legions. A storm governor of Narbonensis, the Roman- occupied Caesar at the Louvre Wearing the laurel wreath of a victorious iy general, this statue is part of Caesar's cult of personality. O we 2 ° @ os go? we AS é a oh yy SS Sain See .S ey \S Pr ger col cs oe OS at ge se oO gorge oF 305 Pr Parcs ee Ne ae 98 4" oe 6? op co ag Ry TGQ we 0% xi PH oe’ eS oh oe ae) es ee oe 0 oo 5 oe 3 eM 8 pt segs cao 20k g a Le? & J segs es 2 . Ss. S 0% 0 ae 6 eae" ye Poe | oe 4 ae" oe oe A Se gt YOO se LAP ar Hp Tesh Hor sige He" ot € eg se eS a’ ero ot « oe s et Se co prevented the arrival of reinforcements, causing him to retreat, but he returned the next year with five legions (around 30,000 men). The Britons did not resist at first, but later, led by Cassivelaunus, chief of the Catuvellauni, they vigorously opposed the Romans all the way to the Thames River. When Cassivelaunus’s stronghold at Wheathampstead fell, he sued for peace, and Caesar returned to Rome with hostages and the promise of tribute. At the end of 54Bce, shortly after Caesar's second expedition to Britain, another revolt in Gaul, this time led by the Senones, wiped out much of the Roman force there. After putting down the revolt, Caesar's attentions were diverted to Rome, where political violence had resulted in the murder of his former ally Clodius, and where Pompey had been elected sole consulin 528CE, rupturing the Triumvirate. Emboldened by the turmoil in Rome, the Carnutes revolted in Gaul. They were joined by the Averni, led by Vercingetorix, who won several skirmishes against Labienus. Vercingetorix also defeated Caesar himself at Gergovia, but was then trapped at Alesia in September 52BCE. The Romans constructed an encircling rampart around the Gauls’ position and managed to beat off a Gaulish relief force. With no hope left, Vercingetorix surrendered and was taken back to Rome, where he was strangled in 46BCE after appearing in Caesar's triumphal parade. 44 ...[.CAESAR] DREAMED THAT HE WAS FLYING ABOVE THE CLOUDS, AND NOW THAT HE WAS CLASPING THE HAND OF JUPITER. 99 Suetonius, recounting Julius Caesar's murder in the Senate House in 44BCE; Gallia el Transstoing | Gattia Gisalpina eS Massiliae Tarraco WM isace Carin: Nova ee Gades@ _ Munda Carthage! ie MAURETANIA Thapsus “© Kussce AFRICA CAESAR ENDED THE GALLIC REVOLT by the end of 51BCcE, but by this point the Triumvirate had ended: Pompey’s supporters had turned against Caesar, and Crassus had been killed in battle in 53BcE. The Senate ordered Caesar to disband his army or be declared an enemy of the state. Instead, he crossed the Rubicon River into Italy with his troops in 498CcE. This was illegal, constituting a declaration of war against the Senate. As Caesar marched toward Rome, town after town submitted to him. Fearing Caesar, Pompey left Rome and fled to Greece. Caesar turned first to Spain, where seven legions had declared for Pompey. In August 46 THE DIE IS CAST. 99 Julius Caesar to his troops on crossing the Rubicon in 49BCE; from Plutarch's Parallel Lives 0, dream the night before his from Lives of the Caesars ROPE Black Sea 47BCE Zela PARTHIAN EMPIRE Miter "anean Sea Cyrene cyrenaica Alexandria PTOLEMAIC KINGDOM OF EGYPT 498ce, he forced the Pompeians there to surrender. In December, Caesar set off for Greece in pursuit of Pompey. A military engagement at Dyrrachium in July went against Caesar, but he fought back before Pompey’s support could grow, and won a resounding victory at Pharsalus. Pompey took refuge in Egypt, where he was murdered on the orders of Ptolemy XIII, who hoped [in vain) to ingratiate himself with Caesar. After a short time in Egypt, Caesar returned to Rome, where he raised money by confiscating property from the supporters of Pompey. In late 47 8c, Caesar set sail for Africa, where he defeated a new Pompeian army at Thapsus (in modern Tunisia]. Pompey's sons Gnaeus and Sextus escaped to Spain to continue the resistance from there, and Caesar annexed the kingdom of King Juba of Mauretania, who had supported them. Caesar then proceeded to Spain, where in KEY ~* Caesar's movements ® Siege X Caesar's victories Roman Civil Wars Caesar won Italy easily, but he had to fight hard to overcome Pompey in his Greek stronghold, and then Pompey's sons and remaining Supporters in Africa and Spain. March 45 sce he defeated Gnaeus Pompey at Munda, effectively ending the civil war. Caesar was now all-powerful. He was made dictator in 48BcE, and in 448CE he was given the office for life. Concerns over Caesar's power—in particular, fears that he planned to make himself king—led a group of about 60 conspirators to form around senators Cassius and Marcus Brutus. They murdered Caesar on the Ides of March (March 14] i just before a session of the : Senate. If they had hoped to seize © power, the conspirators were : disappointed: Mark Antony, one : of Caesar’s leading supporters, = came to the fore in Rame, while Caesar's great-nephew and adoptive son Octavian received : widespread support in a bid to » take up the mantle of his father. : In India, Kalinga (modern : Orissa), which had been a client » kingdom of the Mauryas (see 200-171 BCE), rose to prominence : under Kharavela in the mid-1st centuryBce. Kharavela expanded : Kalinga far to the north and east, } conquering the Sunga capital of : Pataliputra in Magadha. A strong | patron of the Indian religion of » Jainism, Kharavela established © trading contacts as far afield ! as Southeast Asia : Murder of Caesar ? Conspirators struck Caesar down : with daggers. As he fell, Caesar saw Marcus Brutus, a former protégé, = and cried out “you too, child?” . S) of ry & oe 32 oS So & o FS S ot gt Ps wr ow x? Urs: ws or o> eo we CBR sv" CORR K os < o hte? x Ross 0% cy & oes Ree See er oe ea PY Ee oS se? ger Oe Bh ORE Pe oF, Ae Poe o™ pr Ae? ve ak? WEE GA ee ow s oe AO PS Coen 2 wren ao? ow od & LR S 6) vs Oy a os oom Gor os Wa) ooh Sf co a o® ort ow gs 3 oe e” > a “2 Noe ‘ Cn Oe rears ate we o& Roto monet a Poo we eo tae Sisk od ce pero ort 07 0 uM coig® aa . J. ~e? oe oot Ko oes ~ ut eS = $ on oe Se reoe® ee ars 3 se ee BO? cs oe gon vet KF O'S oF Se. eo oe oe aa oe of 2 wo ge This 18th-century painting shows Mark Antony fleeing from the battle scene at Actium in 31 BCE. Many of his supporters defected to Octavian's side as a result. IN ROME, THE PERIOD AFTER THE ASSASSINATION of Julius Caesar saw rising tensions between Mark Antony and Octavian, whom many viewed as Caesar's rightful heir. The two almost came to blows early in 43BcE, when Octavian marched to raise the siege of Mutina (Modena, Italy), where Mark Antony was besieging Decimus Brutus, one of Caesar's assassins. Mark Antony was forced to retreat to Gaul. When the Senate voted to transfer Octavian's legions to Decimus Brutus, Octavian realized he was being sidelined and formed a three-way alliance with Mark Antony and Marcus Lepidus, the governor of Transalpine Gaul. This became the Second Triumvirate. The Triumvirate conducted a war against Cassius and Marcus Brutus, two more of Caesar's assassins, who had seized much of the territory in the east. In 42Bce, Mark Antony and Octavian defeated THE NUMBER OF YEARS THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE RULED ROME them at Philippi, in northern Greece, after which Cassius committed suicide. Three weeks later, they destroyed the remnants = of Marcus Brutus’s army. Mark Antony stayed in the east until 408ce, when he returned to Italy to try to undermine the growing power of Octavian. Their two armies refused to fight, and a de facto division of the Roman world was f 4 : agreed, with Mark Antony ruling | the east and Octavian governing ' the west; Lepidus had to make do : with Africa. The Triumvirate was : renewed in 386CE for a further : five years, but it was clear that : conflict between Octavian and : Mark Antony could not long : be postponed. However, Mark Antony was : occupied with a war against | the Parthians, who were allied : with remnants of Cassius's army : and attacked Syria in 398CcE, In 36BcE, Mark Antony invaded _ Parthia itself—ostensibly to : recover the legionary eagles captured by the Parthians at the » Battle of Carrhae (see 538cE)— : and advanced to the capital | Phraata, but he did not have : Suicide of Cleopatra | This 19th-century painting depicts : the death of Cleopatra, who killed : herself to avoid being captured by : Octavian and taken to Rome. NUMBER OF WARSHIPS Octavian Anthony and Cleopatra Battle of Actium : Octavian's fleet outnumbered that of : Mark Antony and Cleopatra, with smaller more manoeuvrable ships, and fresher, better trained crews. sufficient resources to besiege it. In 33BCe, the Triumvirate expired and Octavian had the Senate declare Mark Antony a public enemy. The latter had lost popularity through his relationship with Cleopatra, the Egyptian queen, and Octavian quickly rallied public opinion to himself. A fleet was rapidly assembled, and this destroyed Mark Antony's naval force at Actium, off western Greece, in September 31 BcE. Mark Antony's land army then defected to Octavian, and Antony and Cleopatra fled to Greece, where Octavian caught up with them in the summer of 308CE. The Roman warlord and the Egyptian queen both committed | suicide, and Egypt was annexed to the Roman empire. Octavian was now the unchallenged master of the whole Roman world. Augustus built a new Forum at Rome, with an imposing new temple to Mars. HAVING DEFEATED HIS ENEMIES, Octavian did not take on the title of dictator, as Julius Caesar had. He instead ruled informally as the princeps—the first man of the state. Having acquired control of Antony's legions, he now had an army of about 500,000 men. He disbanded more than half of these, retaining 28 legions (about 150,000 soldiers), settling the remainder in colonies in Italy and abroad. In 278CE, Octavian gave up all his powers, ostensibly restoring the Republic. The Senate responded by granting him personal control of Egypt, Gaul, Germany, Spain, and Syria. He was also given the title “Augustus” and, cementing his position further, he was consul each year from 27 to 23BcE. Over time, the Senate voted Augustus further powers, including that of imperium maius in 23 BCE, which gave him supreme authority in the provinces he had not previously governed, and the permanent powers ofa tribune of the plebs in 23BceE. Although the Senate was, in theory, the supreme authority in Rome, in practice no one could match Augustus's power, and he is seen as the first Roman emperor. North Africa had been a center of strong resistance to both Julius Caesar and Augustus, who settled many army veterans there. In 25sBce, Augustus gave Mauretania (western North Africa) to Juba II of Numidia. Juba, whose wife was the daughter of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, proved a reliable Roman ally. Augustus still sent a legion to garrison North Africa, where it stayed for over 300 years. 2 +S a S o o eS Aw Cas x s se s oe OK. Vs?” 00" oO 50) oe FO ok! Pe Se rt os 5 AO 9G" MONG oe pre at ie Ses 8 a? gh Ge A \ Se ve >) Soe Coes 98% oo rd ooo oF Oh i os Sre™ Fo eso oe 9% avi oe oO 8 x2” ao8 ae: ge W aes gk =) rx ro . we ys SX es y? ye? sO eo Ors ree Fe Ser gusto BE Mar ore eee er oo®™ Paw gor 08 pO aoe ane aw? o' o eo oo 8 In western Asia, the ruler of Galilee, Herod I, was allowed to retain his position by Octavian, even though he had supported Mark Antony. He was even given extra territories, including parts of Syria and Gaza. Herod had been appointed by Mark Antony in 428CE, and by 37 BCE he had conquered the remains of the Hasmonean kingdom (see 146-131 BCE). Herod remained a reliable ally of Rome until his death in 48cE. Emperor Augustus Augustus, seen here dressed as a priest, acquired the title of pontifex maximus (chief priest] on the death of Lepidus in 12BCE. La Maison Carré, in Nimes, southern France, is one of the finest surviving Roman temples. It was built around 16BCE by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. 44 HE COULD JUSTLY BOAST THAT HE HAD FOUND IT BUILT OF BRICK AND LEFT IT IN MARBLE. 99 Suetonius, on Augustus’s embellishment of the city of Rome; from Lives of the Caesars AUGUSTUS’S MILITARY AND POLITICAL SUCCESSES had relied largely on the abilities of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, who rose from a minor family to become consul in 37, 28, and 27Bce. After Agrippa had married Augustus'ss daughter Julia, he received numerous promotions, including tribune of the plebs in 18Bce. Augustus’s own appointed heir had died in 25BCE, so he adopted Agrippa’s children, renaming them Gaius and Lucius Caesar. Agrippa seemed likely to succeed Augustus, but in 12BCE he died unexpectedly, throwing open the question of succession. By threatening to invade Parthia in 20BceE, Augustus had engineered the return of legionary standards captured by the Parthians at Carrhae (see 538ce). In 16BCE, the Roman governor of Macedonia began pushing toward the River Danube, and from 12 BCE Tiberius, Augustus's stepson, the son of his second wife Livia, moved north from Illyria to create the Roman province of Pannonia [modern Austria and Hungary). Tiberius's brother Drusus pushed Roman control across the Rhine toward the Elbe between 12 and 9BCE, when he died. Around this time, the Romans annexed the provinces of Raetia [in modern Switzerland) and Noricum (between the Alps and the Danube), moving the empire's frontiers almost to a line along the Rhine and the Danube. Supporters of Tiberius, now the most high-profile general, tried to have him displace Lucius and Gaius Caesar as Augustus's heir. Augustus himself did little to resolve the question of succession, The end of the Republic and the reign of Augustus saw a golden age in Latin literature. The orator Cicero and the historian Sallust marked the height of late Republican literature. After Augustus’s rise to power, the poets Virgil (right; 70-19 ece), author of the Eclogues and the epic poem The Aeneid, and Horace (65-8 sce), author of the Odes and Carmen Saeculare, both flourished under the patronage of Maecenas, a close confidant of Augustus. Bes Or ee AD @ 27 ge 0 OP 6. my ee U woe os OF gk see” s a oF hoa e3 wore? cs c § 992 So Fe ash ott por, aos oF OF a Ah aw? oh we od preg gs 5 60 Shee en Qo a ge ge" 3° oe BE GAT AY oe ececes od WS pr ast oo WF se Poo oo CN oe ” ras ve $ Fc 44 THOSE WHO SLEW MY FATHER I DROVE INTO EXILE... AND... DEFEATED THEM IN BATTLE. 99 Augustus, from the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, the testament of Augustus, in Ankara, Turkey BY 9BCE, DRUSUS HAD DEFEATED THE MAIN GERMAN TRIBES and had reached the Elbe River. After his death, Augustus appointed Tiberius to replace him. Tiberius won a series of victories in 8BCE, but then mysteriously resigned his offices and wentinto exilein Rhodes. This left Gaius and Lucius = Caesar (both underage] asheirs apparent to the Roman Empire. In China, the reign of Yuandi (49-33BcE] saw the economic i retrenchment begun under Xuandi : (see 70-61 BCE) continue. Some semi-independent kingdoms that the early Han had suppressed began to reappear. Yuandi and his successors Chengdi (r. 33-7 8ceE} and Aidi (r. 7-1 BCE] also created numerous marquisates, many of which were granted to the sons of the new kings, weakening the state's central control. Chengdi lacked a male heir, resulting in : Khazneh at Petra : The Khazneh is one of Petra's finest £ monuments. Carved out of a sheer | cliff-face, it was probably a royal tomb, : perhaps of Aretas IV (c.9B8CE-40 CE). : the succession of his half-nephew : Aidiin 7BcE. This caused dissent » among nobles whose candidates : for the throne had been overlooked. | The Nabataean kingdom of i northern Arabia grew rich on its © control of the spice trade from : southern Arabia, reaching its : height in the mid-1st centuryBcE under Malichos I (c. 59—c. 308CcE). © It then faced a growing threat on : its northern borders from Herod I. : Adisputed succession in 9/8 BCE : between Aretas IV and his chief minister Syllaeus led the Romans _ to take an interest in the area. An : expedition led by Gaius, grandson : of Augustus, may even have : briefly annexed Nabataea in : 3-1BCcE, but the Romans pulled » back, allowing Nabataea another : century of independence. so? get soegd sit ge™ F Fao eo sai a oo go 08 se PES SOOO oS es e ¢ ss © ee aa oe ate ow oe 20% aR aos woe ee % 508 “as? ware <0 oo” uw Sor Fo PF OP AV Cae er oo or ‘ae wd We i? ee CE el od ot i oe Oro SO 3 we 700 sce-599 ce | THE CLASSICAL AGE Wale tes iOle m= ROMAN EMPIRE Soon after its foundation in 753 BcE, the city of Rome began fighting its neighbors to gain new territory. Gradually, the Romans became entangled in campaigns in the Italian Peninsula and beyond. By the 1st century CE, the Roman Empire had become the largest Europe had ever seen. The early growth of Roman territories was slow, with wars against neighbors often threatening the survival of Rome itself. By 270 BCE the Romans dominated central Italy and began expanding into the Italian Peninsula. Rivalry with Carthage led to the three Punic Wars between 264 and 146BCE, but victories brought the acquisition of territory in Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, and then North Africa itself. In the early 2nd century BCE the Romans fought campaigns in the Balkans, leading to the annexation of most of Greece in 146 BCE. The pace of acquisition quickened in the later years of the Republic, as generals competed for political power and used 44 TO THE ROMANS [SET NO BOUNDARIES IN TIME OR SPACE. 99 Virgil, Roman poet (70-19BCE), the god Jupiter, prophesying the future greatness of Rome, from the Aeneid Roman population 7. 1% Around 1CE, the Roman Empire contained about one-seventh of the world’s population— 45 million out of 300 million people. 117 CE Expanding empire and western Asia. An empire of noncitizens In 1CE, only a tenth of the Between the accession of Augustus and the death of Trajan, the Roman Empire almost doubled in size, acquiring vast new territories in northwestern Europe their military successes to bolster their position in Rome. It was in this period that Pompey annexed Syria and Julius Caesar conquered much of Gaul, between 58 and 51BCE. The collapse of the Roman Republic and the accession of the first emperor, Augustus, in 27BCE did not end the empire's expansion. The quest for security along the existing frontiers resulted in the frontiers being pushed even farther forward. Rome's final large-scale acquisitions were made in the reigns of Claudius, who oversaw the invasion of Britain in 43CE, and Trajan, who conquered new provinces in Dacia (modern Romania] and Mesopotamia between 106 and 117CE. 100cE ATLANTIC OCEAN a7) "coy LUSITANIA * Toletum « Emerita Augusta MAURETANIA TINGITANA By around 100CE, the Mediterranean had become a Roman ‘lake," and the acquisition of territories in northwest and Central Europe KEY had brought the northern Roman frontier as Roman territory A GROWING EMPIRE It took the Romans nearly 500 Roman population were full years to complete the conquest “2 citizens. The rest were slaves x 1 ,900,000 mi or had limited civic rights. of Italy, but only half that time to enlarge their territories to include Spain, Gaul, parts of Germany, most of the Balkans, much of North Africa, and large parts of western Asia. Over the following 100 years they acquired Morocco, Britain, and Dacia, and made small advances into western Asia, but the empire began to contract after 250CE. far as the Rhine and the Danube. territory in Sicily, 240BCE The Romans dominated most of the Italian Peninsula. Victory in the First Punic War (264-241 BcE) brought new but the Romans still faced resistance to their rule in northern Italy. North Sea Eburacum THE APPROXIMATE LENGTH \ me OF THE ROMAN FRONTIERS kates, ee AT THEIR MAXIMUM EXTENT 2 GERMANIA) = Augusta. ° 5 Dyas -lreverorum “¢ Durocortorum | PA sontiacum Sarmatians oe s SS GERMANIA Marcomanni Quadi % SUPERIOR y Vindobona_Carnuntum MOSIA Aaa Lugdunum, ¥ < ic“. Brigetio INFERIOR i ‘KINGDOM | ev OP Virunun 25 Aquineum Apulum : AQUITANIA Aquileia Se PANNONIA yam Pr 0) eS” — INFERIOR oh DACIA Durostorum ‘ALPS GRAIAE 7 ¢ ALPS COTTIAE ET POENINAE © Sirmium vy Viminacium ENSIs cous ; SUPERIOR = Massilia Pes Philippopolis Corsica THRACIA Ng Aleria ITALIA SS Samosata Sardinia Zeugma “re : Antioch MAURETANIA Kk % en CAESARIENSIS Carthage Ms f Cyprus é jamascus Jerusalem : Ptolemais Leptis Magna Alexandria CYRENE ET CRETA Memphis 77) AEGYPTUS 200BCE The Roman defeat of Carthage 120BCE Most of Spain had fallen 60BCE New North African territories 14CE The Roman borders had expanded in the Second Punic War brought new into Roman possession, as well as were gained in 96BCE, and in 63BCE Syria _ to include Gaul beyond the Alps, as well possessions in Spain and Sardinia. By Carthaginian territory in North Africa. and parts of Palestine were annexed. as new provinces in Raetia and Noricum 200 BCE, a toehold had also been gained Greece and parts of western Anatolia The frontiers in Anatolia were also (Switzerland, south Germany, and in northwestern Greece. were also acquired. pushed forward. Austria], and Pannonia (Hungary). 1/3) 44 QUINCTILIUS VARUS, GIVE ME BACK MY LEGIONS. 99 Emperor Augustus, on hearing of the Roman defeat in the Teutoberg Forest, 9CE WANG MANG WAS IN CHARGE OF BOTH THE CHINESE ARMY and the government under Emperor Ping Di (r. 1 8ce-6 ce). He strengthened his influence by marrying his daughter to the young emperor. On Ping Di's death, many of the THE NUMBER OF DIFFERENT : (China's administrative regions}, : and reimposed several state monopolies. Serious floods on the Yellow River in 4-11 led to famine and revolts in rural areas. In 23, © the peasant rebels called the “Red: : Eyebrows” joined forces with Han : : loyalists and overwhelmed Wang : Mang's armies. When the capital * Han dynasty. One of his first acts : was to make Luoyang his capital. : Bce) returned to Germany in 4 to TYPES OF COIN ISSUED BY WANG MANG nobility rejected Wang Mang’s choice of successor and rose up in revolt. Wang Mang easily put them down, and in 9 he took the title of first Xin emperor. He reissued the currency, forbade the selling of private slaves, reorganized the commanderies : planned attack on them in 6 was : postponed because of a revolt in : Pannonia, which took three years Chang'an fell, Gengshi became the first emperor of the restored In Europe, Tiberius (see 20-2 subdue the tribes there. The Marcomanni resisted, but a : to quell. Anew Roman commander, : : Varus was ambushed in the : Teutoberg Forest, and his three remained for the next 400 years. Quinctilius Varus, was sent to Germany, but his corrupt rule angered the German tribes. In 9, legions were annihilated. Augustus then ordered a withdrawal to the Rhine, where the Roman frontier : Consolidating ruler : Rather than extending = Roman territory through foreign : conquests, Tiberius concentrated on : strengthening the existing empire. When Emperor Augustus [see | 20-2ecé) died in 14, Tiberius was _ his obvious heir (Lucius and Gaius : Caesar having died). Tiberius : already possessed most of : Augustus’s powers and had the i loyalty of the Praetorian | Guard—the elite army unit based : in Rome, which Augustus had : established. Although there were : moves in the senate to restore _ the Republic, Tiberius rapidly : squashed them. His reign (to 37) | was quiet at home. Germanicus, Tiberius's nephew, campaigned : extensively in Germany up to 16, : but his efforts led to no permanent : » reacquisition of territory beyond i © the Rhine and he died of poisoning | » in 19. After Drusus, Tiberius’s son, : : died in 23, the emperor tired of : public life and retired to the island of Capri, off Naples. : Sejanus, head of the Praetorian ' Guard, took day-to-day power, but : his rule was tyrannical and in 31 Tiberius suddenly reasserted : himself and had Sejanus executed. © Ponte di Tiberio, Rimini, Italy : Completed in the reign of Tiberius, | this bridge carried the Via Aemilia © (which ran from Riminia to Piacenza] : across the Marecchia River. 2 cS oS Ss * ss oe 3? of cS 3 5S <2 oF Ne se” ay o 3 2 CR ye we 2”, 32° OF ar? C A Samed & S es ORs a sed oo QO 312? 9? oF er oe c ys Arson go" os Ape 5 ga we re oo fx a ago oe ag Cae gk oa" Pwr’ 2.9 oo "ye? 9h KP ot! es <@ re re ar eh SBP AO Lo Ww BF ge LF We e One Xa ee ON AF wk poh £27. on o- ¥ ~) Ocean) FP oOo i OSIRIS NF ge ye" fo oe ot Re Rg we ee er e™ ce Ae 3a s o x & 2 aes se = PF oe Wy EON or eS aol? PEWS oo erg oro” Po os CS oe 81 THE CITY OF TEOTIHUACAN IN THE VALLEY OF MEXICO experienced massive growth during the ist and 2nd centuries, with its population reaching over 80,000 before 200. The city was planned ona grid, with two huge pyramids—of the Moon and the Sun—at either end of the main street. The Teotihuacan Il phase of the city (0-350) saw the building of the enormous Temple of Quetzalcoatl and the acquisition of an empire, with Teotihuacan dominating vast areas of Mexico and overseeing client kingdoms as far south as Guatemala. Hadrian had adopted Antoninus ~ Pius (86-161) as his son and successor, a stop-gap until Antoninus's relative, Marcus Aurelius (121-80), was old enough to rule, but Antoninus survived Hadrian by 23 years, and became Roman emperor in 138. He was MILES THE LENGTH OF THE ANTONINE WALL IN SCOTLAND : characteristic of work ‘ THOUSAND THE TOTAL POPULATION OF TEOTIHUACAN AT ITS PEAK Teotihuacan in modern Mexico. famed for his moderation and rarely left Rome. Disturbances in Dacia (in present-day Romania) around 140 and an uprising in North Africa in 145 did not unduly disturb the empire's calm. Antoninus extended the frontier in both Scotland and Upper Germany, ordering the construction of a new turf barrier around 100 miles (160km) to the north of Hadrian’s Wall (see 188-135 Bce) in Britain. This Antonine Wall was 39 miles (63km] in length. The Hadrian's 4 Wall garrison was moved north to a new set of forts, but their stay was short—Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus Pius’s successor, ordered a pull-back to Hadrian's Wall around 161, where the Roman frontier of Britain remained until the Sth century. As Christianity grew, so did the problem of defining a single doctrine. Among the alternative doctrines that sprang up in the 2nd century was Marcionism, which taught that the God of \ \_ turquoise Hea Say P Christians was distinct from the > y Jewish God of the Old Testament oe y and that Jesus Christ did not have ww ahuman nature. Justin Martyr e (c. 103-165) argued that Mexican mask a Christianity was the fulfillment This sumptuous . of Jewish prophecy and that ~ ° necklace made ed ts f Christians were the new chosen rom coral beads ’ people. Justin also wrote to Marcus Aurelius, seeking to explain Christian doctrine. mask from Teotihuacaén a bears the smooth, flat features that are from the city. The ruins of Hatra, which was a Parthian-controlled city. MARCUS AURELIUS SUCCEEDED TO THE ROMAN THRONE jointly with Lucius Verus in 161. Marcus was the more capable of the two, but it was Lucius who was sent, in 162, to rescue the situation in the east after the governor of Cappadocia was defeated and killed by the Persians following a disastrous invasion of Armenia. By 163-164 Lucius had brought Armenia back under Roman control, and renamed its capital Kaine Polis (“New City”). Anew pro-Roman king was installed there before the legions moved on, pushing deeper into Persian 44 IF ITISNOT RIGHT, DO NOT DOIT: IFITIS NOT TRUE, DO NOT SAY IT. 99 Emperor Marcus Aurelius, from Meditations, 161-180 territory, taking Edessa in Mesopotamia, and reaching the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon in 165. The Roman general Avidius Cassius (c. 130-175] burned the Parthian palace and then turned back westward. A swathe of Parthian territory down the Euphrates River was annexed as far east as Dura Europos [in southeastern Syria). However, victory celebrations were short-lived, for the troops brought the plague back to Rome and by 167 it had spread : widely throughout the . Mediterranean. Barely had the Parthian War = ended than the Marcomannic : War began. In early 167, a group : of Germanic warriors from the : Langobardi and Obii tribes © crossed the Danube to attack the » Roman province of Pannonia. | They were pushed back : fairly easily, but in spring : 168 Marcus Aurelius » resolved to visit the region _ to assess the situation. | Two more Germanic tribes, the Marcomanni and : Quadi were threatening to : force their way across the | frontier unless they were » admitted to settle in the © empire, but Marcus's : presence deterred them. : However, the expedition : was cut short by the death | of Lucius Verus from : plague in early 169. Marcus : returned to Italy, but was back in © Pannonia later in the year to : launcha massive offensive : across the Danube. It was a | disaster, with the Romans : suffering around 20,000 dead and : the Marcomanni and Quadi : pouring into Italy, where they laid © siege to Aquileia. Far from : providing an easy victory for : Marcus, the war dragged on for another 10 years. In China, the eunuch faction at : court had become increasingly powerful and had even engineered © the murder of the emperor Shaodi : in 125. Under Emperor Huandi © (146-68) a series of natural : disasters weakened the authority | Marcus Aurelius This statue shows Marcus Aurelius : adopting a pose of victory, something he claimed but never quite achieved : in his Marcomannic Wars. : of the central government, and the emperor relinquished active control of government to the : eunuchs. In 168, an attempt by * Dou Xian, regent for the 12-year- © old emperor Lingdi (r. 168-89), © to have the eunuchs massacred failed—the plot was betrayed : and Dou Xian was forced to : commit suicide. Several hundred - of Dou Xian’s supporters were © executed and, with its enemies now dead, the eunuch faction : was able to exercise power : almost unopposed. oka a PF §?) Peds RS Sos oxo ot yer 9 59 eve ido oo ae Ror we os ne? oe cos of AEP 97 co xs CS ae Qe ae? os? ooo" Wh Se wor & ae w aoe o é re se eo oho! se . a os 5 errs — WET gas eo) ES > sF Orem pF oe ow we CS PP we . BO LOG x SF oh 8 26® oo QT oo wok Xe ad x cs x i RG we s oF 3 x eo Lr ) oO M7 OF a, BP oo a ae oP so? 0 BAP 5 a op 0? yo oO ne Vg Fo vr ae os Wak & ‘er we es 83 700 Bce-599 cE | THE CLASSICAL AGE Om / 4 A decorative __“ a female head . Gold dolphin earrings Earrings adorned with animal-head motifs were especially popular in the eastern Roman empire. : This pair bears a symbol & of the sea god Neptune. j Se © | & : Precious necklace ™ . » * This necklace, made up & of gold and red garnets, 4 * seems to form the shape of a spectacular fruit tree. Di garnet shaped like /-—— 4 fruit or berry Bone pin ” — " This flat, thin blade or pin is topped é * a \___ gold in the form a by a female head, an ornamental touch for an otherwise humdrum of a leaf household item. ANCIENT ROME THE ROMANS SPREAD A RICH MATERIAL CULTURE THROUGHOUT THEIR VAST EMPIRE As Roman political control steadily expanded outside Italy, in its wake came the Roman way of life. Roman surveyors laid out new cities, local elites took up Roman practices, and the masses attended gladiatorial spectacles. On a domestic level, Roman fashions in clothing and accessories also spread. Although many of the territories that the Romans conquered initially resisted, the populations of these provinces, particularly the former ruling classes, gradually adopted many Roman customs. Influential men became Roman citizens, towns were given new public buildings such as baths and central pivot __ courthouses, Roman legionary garrisons were established in strategic places, and new trade routes brought luxury goods from Rome. As aresult, similar Roman artifacts have been found across Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, dating from around the 1st century BCE to the 5th century CE. head of Oceanus cursive letter forms Wooden tablet The most important Roman baths were adorned with lavish mosaics, such as this one of Oceanus, the ocean god, from Sabratha in Libya. This type of tablet, made from very thin wood, was used by the Roman military for everyday letters and record- keeping. This one was found at Vindolanda in England. Plumb line This bronze weighted plumb line was attached to a groma, an instrument used by the Romans to survey straight lines. bronze — weight cart carrying _/ worshipers Bronze dividers and foot rule Dividers allowed engineers to copy scale plans or models at twice or half their size—the gap between the lower points is always twice that between the upper points. The rule, which was one Roman foot long (11% in/29.6 cm), folded for easy carrying. metal crest to deflect blows foot rule Procession bowl This lekane, a type of shallow dish, is decorated with a scene of half-man, half-goat satyrs in a procession in honor of Bacchus, the god of wine. modern- looking grater Short sword Ancient grater Cheese played an important part in the Roman diet. Graters such as this one were invented to allow cheese to be used as a topping on other foodstuffs. ANCIENT ROME flask containing oil strigil for scraping short blade—ideal for attacks at close range. Amphora Bathing tools The Romans transported liquid At the baths, a Raman’s skin goods such as oil and wine was oiled and then scraped to in amphoras, a type of large, remove sweat and dirt. Aring double-handled storage jar. was used to transport the tools. The Roman military sword, or gladius, hada short blade It was used by soldiers and some gladiators. ivory grip satyr carrying cymbals eS Military javelin . Each Roman legionary carried two of these pila (javelins). Itong iron handle shaped for —/ The javelin’s iron head was designed to break off on shank throwing Imperial coins Coins bearing the head of the current emperor (here Augustus and Claudius] acted as powerful propaganda tools across the empire, showing even the masses an image of their ruler. Proof of citizenship Noncitizens who served 25 years in the Roman army were awarded citizenship and given bronze diplomas such as this one to record the grant. gridded visor to protect face Gladiator helmet Roman gladiators bore a variety of arms and armor. This sort of helmet was worn by a Thracian, a type of gladiator ‘whose equipment was modeled on that of ancient Thracian warriors. impact to prevent an opponent throwing it back. Sling pellets Roman legionaries normally relied on their swords, but auxiliary light infantry used other weapons to devastating effect, such as these metal sling pellets. small size would have offered little protection Bronze gladiator shield Thracian gladiators—a class of lightly armed gladiator—carried lightweight, round shields such as this one for defense, anda scimitar, with a short, curved blade, to attack their opponents. In this engraving by Giovanni Stradano, Emperor Commodus shoots an arrow IN CHINA, INCREASING DISSENT caused by the corruption of the eunuchs at the court of Han Emperor Lindi (r. 168-89) anda succession of natural disasters led to the outbreak in 184 of a major insurrection, named the Yellow Turban revolt for the color of its supporters’ headgear. Up to 400,000 rebels swept westward towards the capital. Another uprising fueled by the Five Pecks of Rice sect then succeeded in taking over Sichuan in the southwest. Although the Yellow Turbans had been largely crushed by early 185, the control of the Han emperor was ever weakening. After Lingdi died in 189, he was replaced by his younger half-brother Xiandi (r. 189-220) but he never exercised real power. Instead, control of the empire fell to Han general Cao Cao, who contended for 30 years with a series of rival warlords, notably Liu Bei in the southwest and Sun Quan in the south. THE AGE AT WHICH COMMODUS BECAME SOLE EMPEROR to subdue a leopard. Fighting in the arena as a gladiator was his great passion. Commodus [r. 180-92), Marcus Aurelius's son, was the first = Roman emperor to succeed his : father for 90 years, but he proved _ to be adisastrous choice. In 182, : after an assassination attempt on : him, apparently organized by his sister Lucilla, Commodus became | increasingly despotic. Many : senators who were implicated in : the plot were executed and control : of the government fell into the © hands of Tigidius Perennis, the | praetorian prefect (the commander of the imperial + bodyguard). There were minor | wars in Britain and in Dacia {much © of modern Romania), but in 185 : Perennis was suspected of a plot = to make his own son emperor and was executed by his troops. : Commodus increasingly devoted himself to fighting in the arena as | a gladiator, while the imperial | chamberlain Cleander dominated : government and sold public offices to the highest bidder. The man in : charge of the grain supply, © Papirius Dionysius, engineered a © shortage that led to Cleander's : downfall. This did not result in a : more stable government, as his replacement only lasted a short time before being murdered. : Commodus increasingly identified » himself with Hercules (the Greek » hero] and renamed Rome after : himself—colonia Commaodiana. At the end of 192, the praetorian : prefect Laetus was convinced that : Commodus was planning to have » him killed and on New Year's Day | 193 took the initiative and had the : emperor poisoned and, when that : did not work, strangled. Ye? ia oe af er) ec eS >) oe o 3 om ss? ee ot ® oe gd on O28 dF “~ Fgh s® ® yeh Pe HP® eG et e oo ie) aS ok es > oe oh eS ow aS xs 8 oP? SA ooh Pen 0 g Pe ss ye 3 es) cone gent Ps Fo” 3 ae" or FX As os s SS ow oe e 32 a io ss c x 30 xe oe S) et me We Ries P40 Ee cores cs Gat So ge _ gore em™ _ g Mod Lae Ree & o PF ew® ok od ost NS 8 ny or © FB ge FO woh ao Oy Boh Fas oo? 3 ~ CRC og GF PS Sos aS N oo oS mS we oe ee er SS ss <) Ih i Leptis Magna [in modern Libya) commemorates a visit by the North African emperor to his home town. 44 BE HARMONIOUS WITH EACH OTHER , ENRICH THE SOLDIERS, IGNORE ALL OTHERS... 99 Septimius Severus, dying words as quoted in Book 77 of Roman historian Dio Cassius’s Roman History, 211 IN 193, AFTER THE MURDER OF COMMODUS, Helvius Pertinax {126-93}, the prefect of the city, was declared emperor, but he was murdered after three months. This was followed by rival claimants to the throne engaging in an auction outside the praetorian camp to decide who would be emperor. Didius Julianus [133-93] won, but Money offered to each soldier by Didius Julianus Money offered to each soldier by Flavius Sulpicianus Buying loyalty The larger bribes offered to the troops by Didius Julianus meant that he won the auction to be emperor. his reign was short, as almost immediately the frontier armies rebelled: the army on the Danube proclaimed Septimius Severus {c. 145-211] emperor, while the Syrian legions raised their commander Pescennius Niger (c. 135-94] to the imperial throne. Severus reached Rome first and, after granting the title of Caesar (junior emperor] to Clodius Albinus, governor of Britain, he turned east where, in spring 194, his armies defeated Niger at the : Battle of Issus in Syria. Severus stayed in the east and in 195 attacked the Parthian Empire. But | he was forced to return west to deal with Albinus, who had revolted, and who was killed near Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France] : in 197. Severus then returned to Parthia, this time occupying the capital Ctesiphon in 197. He pushed the line of Roman control : toward the Tigris and created the new province of Mesopotamia. Trouble in Britain brought the aging emperor to the province in 208. A large-scale Roman advance forced the Caledonians and Maetae north of the provincial frontier to come to terms in 209, 2 or a oe og? ra Scat GP ec e? ROS 3 PP oS oh” ook ae & Fok gh) 07 ook go? oF gsi’ oe oF ae eo oe Cat On 0" 5 yw deh ve! & ah? ooo oe ys GPF iF gh Nm oe? ge” ge PF OE ge? 2?" SS" as CE eS Ke gst BF 6 Cote piece oe ge OF gre Ec we wae’ sir” ee oe \ ae JULIA DOM NA (170-217) The daughter of a Syrian high priest, Julia Domna married Septimius Severus in 187.A prophecy had predicted that she would wed an emperor, and so it turned out. Forceful and intelligent, she failed to mediate between her sons Caracalla and Geta after their father’s death and to prevent Geta’s murder. When Caracalla was killed, she deliberately starved herself to death in protest, a move that rallied support for the remaining Severan family. : but they soon broke the peace and | a new campaign was launched in © 210. Severus was by now very ill, : and his son Caracalla took over. : In February 211 Severus died in : Eboracum (modern York, England) and handed succession jointly to : sons Caracalla and Geta. After the | Scottish war, both rushed back to © Rome, but their joint rule was . short-lived: Caracalla had Geta + murdered in December 211. Sa & RO me SOS goo ot os so 9? oS oe Or xe ‘3 OF O° eS , 2 oe tS om we a © oF 92° en HO S™ oS ao orem Beat oe we Zoe. ar om 10? Poo Reg ero é COA IORE WP ST e2 0” RP NOE OC 3? a8 ys oe st 9% 09 rs) Se a2 207 yo 2h 52? go 90 oi or We SCH wot ® eS YU 39 KG eS = ie en: hs h A carving of the Buddha from Sarnath in North India, where a school of Buddhist art flourished under the Kushans. IN INDIA, THE AREA CONTROLLED BY THE KUSHAN DYNASTY began to shrink after the death of King Kanishka in 140, and particularly severe territorial losses were suffered under Huvishka (r. 160-90). Kushan rule finally collapsed under Vasudeva (r. 190-225) when Persian invaders swept through northwestern India. Although Kushan kings continued to rule a much-reduced realm for a further century, their influence was purely local and their heyday was at an end. In Rome, Caracalla’s government was unpopular. Among his measures was the Antonine Constitution of 212, by DE REN RNING FOUN HG : which citizenship was granted to almost all free males in the | empire. After a successful campaign on the Rhine [in 213), : Caracalla ventured further afield, : arriving in Egypt in 215. For some : unknown reason, he became © enraged and ordered the massacre of the citizens of © Alexandria. The next year he launched an invasion of Parthia. : His praetorian prefect Opellius : Macrinus came to suspect that Caracalla wanted him dead, so he i persuaded a disaffected soldier to murder the emperor. After Caracalla’s murder, the army : declared Macrinus emperor. : There was much residual loyalty KC Up THE NUMBER OF BATHERS THAT COULD USE THE BATHS OF CARACALLA to the Severan family, and a revolt broke out in Syria, which aimed to put Elagabalus (203-22), grandson of Julia Domna’s sister Julia Maesa, on the throne. Macrinus lost support and in June 218 he fled to Cappadocia, where he was killed. In 221, Elagabalus adopted as his heir his cousin Alexianus. When the two fell out in 222, the army backed Alexianus and Elagabalus was murdered. Alexianus became Emperor Alexander Severus at age 13. In Persia, Parthian rule had been weakened, both by plague and by the effects of successive Roman invasions. In 207, the kingdom had been Bronze diploma Diplomas were issued to auxiliary soldiers in the Roman army, granting them citizenship. This practice ceased after the Antonine Constitution. Arch of Caracalla Originally the arch was topped bya figure of the emperor riding ina chariot, It stands in Volubilis, the main town of Roman Mauretania Tingitana lin modern Morocco). divided into two when Vologeses VI's brother set himself up asa rival king, Artabanus V; and a further Roman invasion in 216 ravaged much of the province of Media. Taking advantage of this disorder, the ruler of the southwestern province of Pars, Ardashir, expanded his territory and finally defeated Artabanus V c. 224. Ardashir | was then declared king (r. 224-42) as the first ruler of the Sasanian dynasty. Although © Persia was temporarily weakened by a civil war, the Sasanians © proved to be much tougher : adversaries to the Romans than : the Parthians ever had been. In China in 220, Cao Cao’s son Cao Pi forced Xiandi to abdicate. Within two years Cao Pi, Liu Bei, and Sun Quan would each declare himself emperor. The Han dynasty and China's unity were at an end. Black Sea ei z by cg a Pe " > (Constantinopl 3 ana ARMENIA fn Balkhe ROMAN EMPIRE g Merv@ BACTRIA .. Zs aoe Taxila @ Antioch eNishapur — gabut Cyprus ‘eBarbalissus Ecbatana KHURASAN Mediterranean Dura Europes — Jalula 9)® 1A ASURISTAN _@ *Nehavend SASANIAN Damascug@ Seleucia geCtesiphon, EMPIRE o . abylon @ esusa Aleiandrial Jerusalem cn $ edhe dak eee < e Radisiya ‘@Persepolis Amids A 2 KERMAN Arabian MAKRAN Peninsula . Ulf BAHRAIN, Arabian Sea MAZUN The Sasanian Empire in Persia After rapidly acquiring the former KEY Parthian Empire, the Sasanians fought a series of wars with the Romans over control of Mesopotamia. Sasanian Empire at greatest extent East Roman Empire in 3rd century THE NUMBER OF ROMAN EMPERORS THAT RULED BETWEEN 235 AND 284 IN CHINA, THE FINAL COLLAPSE OF © THE HAN DYNASTY IN 220 was followed by 350 years of instability. © © brutally put down. The Senate (220-80) saw China divided into the Wei kingdom of the north; (initially © The Three Kingdoms period under Wei Wendi [r. 220-26); the Shu Han kingdom in the west whose first ruler was Shu Han Xuande [r. 221-23); and the southern Wu kingdom under Wu Wudi [r. 222-52). Wei Wendi was a capable ruler, but his successors struggled to contain attacks by northern tribesmen. In 235, the Roman emperor Alexander Severus and his mother Julia Mamaea were murdered by mutinous troops, putting an end to the Severan dynasty. The uprising’s ringleader, Maximinus Thrax (r. 235-38), an officer from a humble background, was proclaimed emperor, but he spent most of his reign raising funds to reward his troops for their support. This time marks the start of a period of “military anarchy” in which Rome had dozens of emperors, most of them short-lived rulers who were raised up by the frontier armies and just as quickly deposed and killed. A rebellion in 238 in North Art from the Three Kingdoms High artistic achievements, such as this fine statue, were a feature of the = late Han dynasty. Its collapse in 220 did not result in an equivalent decline in China's artistic output. Roman emperor Gordian III succeeded his father and grandfather. Africa proclaimed the province's elderly governor as Emperor Gordian I, but he was quickly and GOBI DESERT WEI Yellow Luoyang) Ses Chang‘an declared Maximinus deposed and: ae proposed Pupienus and Balbinus {Chen as candidates. Popular sentiment : uA) : favored Gordian I's grandson Paine South a China 4 =< Naiian Ge G =) _ KEY & ~ £0) Wei, 220-225 Wu, 222-280 c ] | Shu Han, 221-263 : China under the Three Kingdoms | Although the Wei kingdom faced the : greatest challenges among the three : kingdoms, it would eventually : conquer the Wu and the Shu Han. \ = ra Gordian III (r. 238-44), so all three briefly shared the throne, Balbinus and Pupienus were killed soon after, leaving Gordian III to rule alone. His six-year reign briefly restored some semblance of stability to the empire, but he was killed while leading an invasion of Persia in 243-44. Compounding the Roman Empire's difficulties was the appearance of barbarian confederacies among the Germanic peoples of the Rhine and Danube frontiers. Principal among these were the Alemanni. In 213, Caracalla campaigned against them; by 260 they were able to invade Italy itself. . yi Amural of St. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage at the height of the Decian /R : persecution. He was martyred in 257 during a campaign under Valerian. PERSIA ATTAINED A POSITION OF RENEWED STRENGTH under Shapur I (r. 241-72). In 244, he won a decisive battle against Gordian Ill at Misiche near Ctesiphon. Shortly after, Gordian Ill was killed and replaced by his army commander Philip (or Philip “the Arab”). Philip made peace ransom to escape Sasanian territory. His successors broke the terms of the agreement, so in 256 Shapur | invaded Syria and captured the towns of Antioch and Europos Dura. Valerian, who by then was emperor [r. 253-60), into a trap and was imprisoned by Shapur. The Romans were left Relief of Shapur | In this relief, Shapur | triumphs over the Roman emperors Gordian II and Valerian. After Valerian’s capture, Shapur is said to have used him as a footstool for mounting his horse. : in disarray and Shapur's armies : advanced as far as Iconium : (modern Konya, Turkey). The western part of the Roman : Empire also faced increasing : pressure. The Romans suffered © invasions of Dacia [much of modern Romania) by the Carpi © people from c. 214. The Carpi, with Shapur but had to paya large © Goths, took part in a raid across : the Danube in 239-40. In 248, » Emperor Philip withdrew an » annual tribute he had been together with a new group, the paying the Carpi and the Goths, © prompting them to pour into » Moesia [modern Bulgaria). Philip soon retook Antioch. In 260, he fell: _ the invasion; he was so successful : that his troops declared him : emperor. Early in 249, Decius : marched to Rome and defeated and killed Philip. Hearing of the : Roman civil war, the Goths © invaded again, causing Decius to : return to the Balkans in 250. : Under their warleader Cniva, the sent Quintus Decius to deal with SHAPUR I (d.272] Shapur’s early leadership experience came in a role assisting his father, Ardashir, in mopping up support for the Parthian Arsacid dynasty. Shapur’s defeats of Gordian Ill in 244 and of Valerian in 260 established a temporary Persian dominance in Syria and Mesopotamia. He used the many Roman prisoners captured in 256 at Antioch to build the new town of Veh Antiok Shapur (“Shapur’s town, better than Antioch”). Goths ravaged the province of : Moesia, laying siege to the main town of Nicopolis (modern Nikopol, Bulgaria). The campaign : went badly for the Romans, ending © in defeat and Decius’s death at the Battle of Abrittus in 251. In Japan, the Yamato kingdom emerged on the plain of Nara [in central Japan] around 250. Its rulers were interred in large burial mounds, and its armies conquered most of central Japan. Much of : what is known comes from Chinese sources, who name the Queen of Yamato in 238 as Himiko. The main colonnade at Palmyra, which grew rich on tariffs paid by merchants 4 \ who plied the desert route that passed through the Syrian city. VALERIAN’S CAPTURE BY THE PERSIANS in 260 proved disastrous for the western part of the Roman Empire as well as the east. Valerian’s son Gallienus (r. 260-68), struggling to contain an invasion of Italy by the Germanic luthungi had no resources to reinforce the Rhine frontier, which was being breached by Alemmanic and Frankish raiders. The Governor of Germania Inferior, Marcus Postumus, revolted and killed Gallienus’s son Saloninus, who had been left in charge of Gaul and The Gallic Empire Postumus began the Gallic Empire in control of Gaul, Germany, Britain, and Spain. By its collapse in 274, the last ruler, Tetricus, had lost Spain. Eburacum . Germany. Postumus declared himself emperor, but unlike previous usurpers did not march on Rome, instead setting up a separate Gallic Empire; this initially controlled Britain, Spain, parts of western Germany, and Gaul. He established a form of government that mirrored that of the official empire, complete with its own Senate. In 269, Postumus was murdered by his own troops and replaced by his praetorian prefect Victorinus. Gallienus— faced with Gothic invasions and the revolt of Zenobia of Palmyra in the east—was never strong enough to put an end to the Gallic Empire. In 268 he was murdered by the army and replaced by Claudius II Gothicus (r. 268-70), who was too busy fighting in the North Balkans to deal with Gaul. Only under Aurelian (r. 270-74) was the Roman Empire strong enough, and by then the Gallic Empire was weakened, with its last ruler, Tetricus (r. 270-74], facing splits in = the army. In 274, Tetricus was captured near Chalons, and the Gallic Empire was reabsorbed. In the east, a serious challenge to Romanrule emerged after 240. The city of Palmyra [in Syria} proved Rome's only reliable ally against the Sasanian advances of Persia. Its ruler Septimius Odaenathus (c. 220-67) received a number of Roman titles, including Corrector Totius Orientis ("Marshal of the entire East”), and invaded the Sasanian Empire in 262 and 266. Odaenathus died in 267; and his wife Zenobia [(r. 267-73) created an empire of her own. By 269, her armies had taken Syria and Egypt, and in 271 she declared her son Vaballathus emperor. Aurelian marched east and soon rolled back the Palmyrene gains, besieging Palmyra in spring 272. Zenobia was captured while trying to escape, and Palmyra was sacked in 273 when it tried to throw off Roman rule again. Sepulchral relief from Palmyra The Palmyrenes buried their dead with exquisite and realistic personal portrayals; the dead were interred in : tower tombs outside the city. In China, Yuandi (r. 260-64) restored Wei's fortunes by conquering the Shu Han. But soon after he was overthrown by one of his own generals, Sima Yuan, who founded the Western Jin dynasty and took the title Wudi (r. 265-89). His armies » crushed and annexed the Wu kingdom in 280, thus briefly reuniting China. 44 YOUD! EMAND MY SURRENDER AS THOUGH YOU W ERE NOT AWARE THAT CLEOPATRA PREFERRED TO DIE A QUEEN RATHER THAN REMAIN ALIVE. 99 Sea KEY BRITANNIA Gallic Empire under yoakons: roan Postumus, 260-68 a ards Gallic Empire under ColshiaAgrippinas = yndians Tetricus, 270-74 Mogontiacum_\"” & gut Roman Empire, 260 Durocortorum @ i . % Marcomanni Augusta Treverorum ee “hang, Zi GALLIA Burdigalae Lugdunum ° Aa Vienna . 4, ‘sMediolanum VIENNENSIS ty a ° 8 A # Ravenna ZL Emerita HISPANIA Narbo : S Augustae Tarraco-* 2 Corsica o Corduba pateate? Romee gl Bades.@ Sardinia Tar@ntum @ Tingis 2 ingis @ Medite, rre Caesarea Mean. MA es URETANIA Carthage je Syracuse Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, to Aurelian Augustus from Historia Augusta c. 375-400 44 PROBUS WAS ALMOST A SECOND HANNIBAL BECAUSE OF HIS KNOWLEDGE OF WARFARE... 99 A \\ @,. = aS Aurelius Victor, Roman historian and official, in De Caesaribus, c. 360 IN CHINA, THE FIRST EMPEROR OF THE WESTERN JIN DYNASTY, Wudi (r. 265-89), was a strong ruler who | : years, Probus had defeated the : Goths on the Danube and pushed _ back the Franks from the Rhine. : Aplanned campaign against : Persia was frustrated in 281 by : the revolt of two usurpers in the : West: Bonosus and Proculus. » Despite his military successes, in _ 282 Probus was murdered by his secured trade routes to the West and built a bridge over the Yellow River to improve communications. However, the wars of the Three Kingdoms period (see 231-244) had impoverished the state and as the tax burden rose, many peasants fled to landowners for protection, resulting in the rise of private armies. In the Roman Empire, Emperor Aurelian—who was murdered in 275—was followed by two Jin sitting bear sculpture The first half of the Jin dynasty under Wudi gave China a period of comparative peace and stability, which allowed the A arts to flourish. : short-lived emperors—Tacitus : and Florianus—before Probus took power in 276. Within two own troops, who were resentful i at being forced to work on civil | engineering projects near : Sirmium [in modern Serbia). The Pyramid of the Moon at Teotihuacan (near modern Mexico City) was built some time after 200 at one end of the city’s Avenue of the Dead; the Pyramid of the Sun sits at the other end. IN 284, THE ROMAN ARMY IN ASIA MINOR PROCLAIMED DIOCLES, the former commander of the imperial bodyguard, Emperor Diocletian (r. 284-305). In 285, he defeated Carinus (the then emperor of the Western Empire] and started a radical reorganization of the empire, reforming the army, and subdividing provinces. The challenges on the frontier were too great to be faced alone; in 285, : he appointed Maximian (250-310) to rule alongside him, first as Caesar (junior emperor] then as Augustus (senior emperor]. Other problems with Britain’s break from the empire under Carausius in 286 convinced Diocletian that more changes were necessary. In 293, he and Maximian appointed two Caesars: Constantius Chlorus [r. 293-306) to assist Persian frieze Diocletian in the Western Empire and Galerius (r. 273-311] to be tetrarchy (four emperor system) enjoyed early successes in Britain (296) and in Egypt (298). In 294, Diocletian reformed the coinage, reissuing new bronze and silver coins, and in 301 he issued an Edict on Maximum Prices to try to curb rising inflation. Unlike his other measures, this one failed. Maximian’s junior in the East. This : : The Paikuli frieze celebrates the victories of Narseh in Armenia and justifies his deposition of predecessor Vahram III. After the death of Shapur | in | 272 Persia faced a period of : political instability. In 293, Narseh [r. 293-302] ascended to the Persian throne. He resolved to recover land in Armenia and + Mesopotamia that had been lost SQUARE MILES THE AREA OF TEOTIHUACAN CITY AT ITS PEAK : to the Romans. He launched a major invasion in 296, defeating : the Caesar Galerius in 297. The next year, however, Galerius | smashed Narseh’s army in » Armenia and captured the Persian : ruler’s family. Galerius marched © as far as Ctesiphon, which he : captured in 298. Narseh was : forced to make peace (Treaty of isibis). Persia remained at peace © with the Romans for 40 years. | In the Valley of Mexico, the city of | Teotihuacan reached the peak of © its power around 300. Its main © street—the Avenue of the : Dead—ran between the Pyramid : of the Moon and the Ciudadela © (which may have been the palace : of the ruler] and was lined with the : residences of the lords of the city. a 2G. > & ae oe 6. S ae as a? ot 8 go? RS oe ot © a) Reo) oe ® Fe ROR Sans oe Soyer 5 o oor s 2 yo oreo CCR oF gt ont SEE 6 Ve go se oF WT _ gw? wy AVY No sere F eg oo 8 EP of en ES AT oA woe OO cea eS oe Ko ee zs < & foe goes ae 5% es ao 98 302 ere oe” gg Xo 5 aS < Cs x x? 8 ES Suen Es G 325 - oe a eS oe as & oa BP oP ge pe” so” WP go oe Ne Biaee) F906 os “se ge 97 ws Av e8 e oo? e® o o > a oo v= This early 16th-century fresco of the Battle of Milvian Bridge is in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. Before the battle, the emperor Constantine is said to have seen a Christian monogram in adream predicting his victory. SINCE PERSECUTIONS IN THE 250S AND 260S, THE CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY had experienced some 40 years of tranquillity in the Roman Empire. All this changed in 303 when Diocletian issued an edict ordering the destruction of churches and the handing over and burning of Christian books. A sterner edict followed, calling for the arrest of Christian clergy, and one in 304 ordered that all Christians offer a Sacrifice to the pagan gods. Devout Christians could not accede to these demands, and many of them were martyred. In 304, Diocletian fell seriously ill, and in 305 he announced that he and Maximian would abdicate. Constantius Chlorus and Galerius would take over as Augusti, while the new Caesars were to be Maximinus (Galerius’s nephew) and Flavius Severus Palace of Diocletian Diocletian built the great palace at Split, Croatia, for his retirement after his abdication in 305. Here, he tended his cabbages. 75,000 MAXENTIUS 50,000 CONSTANTINE : Battle numbers at Milvian Bridge Maxentius's forces outnumbered : those of Constantine, but his army became trapped between Constantine's men and the river. : (Galerius’s army colleague). The new tetrarchy soon unraveled. Constantius died in Eboracum (modern York, England) in July 306 and the troops there : proclaimed his son Constantine : the new Augustus. By October, Maxentius (r. 306-12), the son of Maximian, was crowned emperor : in Rome. Severus was killed trying to retake Rome from Maxentius, : and Maximian restored himself to the position of Augustus. In 308, the Conference of Carnuntum = was called to settle the disputes, presided over by Diocletian, who came out of retirement. Constantine accepted a demotion to Caesar in the West, with | Licinius as Augustus [r. 308-24), : while Maximin Daia became Galerius’s Caesar in the East (r. 310-13). This new arrangement | was no more succesful than the old one. In 311, Galerius died and Maximin became Augustus in the East. He ordered renewed measures against Christians. Constantine, meanwhile, invaded Italy and in October 312 defeated and killed Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge. Before the battle, Constantine is said to have dreamed of the Chi-Rho symbol and ordered his troops to mark it on their shields. Licinius and Constantine met at Mediolanum (modern Milan) in 313, where they agreed to share power and issued the Edict of Milan, which granted toleration to all forms of worship, in effect legalizing Christianity. Licinius then turned East and defeated Maximin Daia, securing control Colonia Agrippina Londinium « Augusta Treverorum ATLANTIC OCEAN i Vienna & Burdigalae ‘Valentia Nemausus # Augustodunum @ Lugdunum sillier Biterree —Massilia Barcino « Carales # Corduba Carthage Hispalise * Nova od Miberris sTingis Hippo Regit regis eTipasa AFRICA Early spread of Christianity Aguontum # Pisa @ over the Eastern provinces. The alliance between Constantine and Licinius broke down in 316; they patched up a peace in 317, and for six years the Roman Empire relapsed into an uneasy calm. In China, Wudi’s successor Huidi (r. 290-306) was mentally disabled and soa succession of regents contended for imperial control. Huidi’s brother Huaidi (r. 307-12] invited the northern Xiongnu tribesmen to help him against the competing Chinese factions, but they took him prisoner. The last Western Jin emperor Mindi (r. 313-16] saw the Xiongnu sack the capital of Chang’an (modern Xi‘an); the Jin moved south, where Yuandi (r. 317-23] became the first Eastern Jin emperor in 317. EUROPE » Chi-Rho symbol The monogram of Chi-Rho, the first two letters of Christ's name in Greek, became an important early symbol of Christianity. Caspian Sea Black Sea #Poetovio, Aquileia eSirmium @Mediolanum, Ravenna eFlorentia Chalcedon Const: le. jeSalonae Constantinop Ni Phil Bitippi Stobie 5 Thessalonies ''25 © * Nica #Rome Sardes @ Ephesus @ thens@ Miletus # ssinaea 94 Corinth ee Neapolis: Nicopolis ‘A Me: @Syracusa @Garthage * Melita Sicca Veneria Ptolomais @i@0¥rene eLeptis Magna Christianity spread in the 2nd and 3rd centuries until there were strong Christian communities in Anatolia, southern Gaul, Italy, Egypt, and the province of Africa [Tunisia]. KEY >\ Nicomedia Cyzicus s eHierepolis , My Rhode: Mediterranean 9°? Sinope Amis jeoczesarea Amasia e ®Neocsesare Caesarea ea Tors is” @Antioch —@Dura-Europos Seleucia @Palmyra eipalis ra *Sclamise sae usher Paphos # Petra Alexandria @ Coptus @ Areas strongly Christian by 325 Sy o ® ay! A a oO xe i rx rane ENS Xa ROE ce oe & HS ge eg ne? Ot oo Kt s pd a ot Pre 9? CO Or SS ore d™ gah e® ao et REQOX™ go Pine oo oF oer ae r nes eo a Rg Os ee ye? hoe ID e2 OF oC RO a Xe ®™ ©) BX FF 0 MP OF oc oh aN’ go Pe ae Cra) aor We eh oS S o ge BOP oO ce? 00 CO oo A oc Hoo ® RC eS Fok eat so Qe at i OO BO oe? ch oS COM go IE or" £2 NPN EO? 4 ny Be SRS Wr poro” Pree os ESS so Ram 2 WoT de he og wr ge ES So Pres or, 3 is O75 6 FBO 7d Brrr = CE. ~° Oo Ser’ RO ns er re Se ae oh er és wor ge Be oe Sones Ot et we oo 9 wt oF e igs oe Itwas largely Eastern Church leaders who gathered at the Council of Nicaea (depicted here) in 325; only eight Western bishops made the journey there. CHANDRAGUPTA I ASCENDED TO THE THRONE of a small kingdom in the western Ganges Plain in 320. Through an advantageous marriage to Princess Kumaradevi of the powerful Liccachevi dynasty : and by conquest, he expanded his = | in western Asia Minor in 325 to | establish (and impose) orthodoxy realm to include most of the central Ganges, from Magadha (in southern Bihar) to Prayaga {in Uttar Pradesh]. His descendants, the Guptas, ruled northern India for almost 150 years. The Column of Constantine The sole surviving monument from the forum that Constantine built for his new city is this column, which sits in central Istanbul today. Having taken up the cause of © Christianity in 313, the Roman | Emperor Constantine (r. 280-337] found that Christians themselves were far from united in doctrine or organization. Constantine called a church council at Nicaea in the face of a division over : Arianism (the theology of Arius, : who held that Jesus Christ was » subordinate to God the Father). As : well as Constantine, about 300 : church leaders attended, and Arius’s views were condemned. _'THE NUMBER OF _ DISTRICTS IN _ CONSTANTINOPLE | After defeating Licinius (r. 308- : 24) in 324, Constantine founded anew capital for the Eastern * Roman Empire at the ancient city © of Byzantium, strategically sited ' between Europe and Asia. He : demolished pagan temples and built new churches, such as Hagia : Sophia, providing public buildings : to rival those of Rome. The city of » Constantinople (modern Istanbul) - was publicly dedicated on April 2, : 330. Itwas the seat of the Eastern : Emperors for over 1,000 years. THE NUMBER OF TYPES OF PURE-GOLD COINS ISSUED BY SAMUDRA- GUPTA IN 335, SAMUDRAGUPTA ([r. 335- 75) SUCCEEDED HIS FATHER Chandragupta | as ruler of the Gupta domains in northern India. An inscription he set up in Prayaga survives, recounting a series of campaigns he fought in Uttar Pradesh and Mathura, both of which were annexed to the Gupta kingdom. He also made conquests down the east coast of India, as far as Madras, and subdued West Bengal as well as parts of Rajasthan and the Punjab. Various other regions acknowledged his suzerainty, making him the most powerful Indian ruler since the Mauryas. Constantine died in 337, having accepted Christian baptism only on his deathbed. He had made no definite provision for succession, leaving his sons to divide the empire between them: Constantine Il (r. 337-40] held Spain, Gaul, and Britain; Constans [r. 337-50) ruled Italy, and Constantius Il (r. 337-61) 46 IN OTHER MEN... TASTE FOR SLAUGHTER SOMETIMES LOSES IT'S FORCE... IN governed the Eastern Empire. Their reigns began with a massacre at Constantinople in which almost all of their father’s other male relatives were killed in order to remove any possible rivals. Constantine II, who was the eldest, tried to assert his seniority, but died during an invasion of Italy in 340. Constans then took control of the entire Western Empire, where he was faced with against Frankish invaders in Gaul, and problems in Britain, which led him to visit the far-flung | province (the last undisputed Roman Emperor to do so) in 343. Disputes between the two surviving brothers, particularly one over the status of Athanasius, : Bishop of Alexandria [whom Constantius Il had exiled, but Constans wanted restored], soured all relations between them. In 350, a senior military officer, Magnentius, revolted at : Gold Gupta coin Many Gupta coins contain images of horses, a possible reference to the ritual horse sacrifice performed by some Gupta rulers. RE VIOLENT. 99 : Augustodunum in southern Gaul i (modern Autun, France) and _ Constanswas killed. Distracted bya war against Persia, : Constantius || tolerated the : upstart initially, but in 351 he : moved against him. Since : Constantius Il had no heir, he : promoted his cousin Gallus—one : of the few survivors of the © massacre of 337—to the rank of Caesar in 351 and left him in a series of hard-fought campaigns : : Campaigned against Magnentius : in the West. Magnentius's army | was defeated at Mursa [in : present-day Croatia); Italy and i North Africa were rapidly © recovered, and in 353 Magnentius : committed suicide in Gaul. charge in the East, while he For the next seven years ' Constantius II ruled the empire © alone, mainly preoccupied with | Frankish incursions into Gaul, the i revolt of the usurper Silvanus in : 355, and aseries of church » councils that sought to resolve | doctrinal disputes (Constantius II : favored Arianism over the © traditional orthodoxy). In the end, Gallus proved too » ambitious and in 354 he was | deposed and executed. : Constantius || turned instead to : Gallus's brother Julian, a studious © youth with a penchant for pagan » philosophy. In 355, after Silvanus’s i revolt, Julian was despatched to » Gaul as Caesar, where he proved i surprisingly effective at combating : Frankish raiders. The acropolis at Tikal, one of the greatest surviving series of ruins in the Mayan world. IN ETHIOPIA, THE KINGDOM OF AKSUM became one of the earliest states toembrace Christianity outside the Roman Empire. The Syrian Christian missionary Frumentius converted the king, Ezana [r. 320-60) to Monophysitism [a doctrine emphasizing a single nature of Christ, the divine]. A letter from Constantius Il to Ezana in 357 has Shapur II hunts a stag Sasanian rulers commissioned lavish silver items depicting themselves hunting wild beasts as a display of their royal power. they set up to commemorate palace complexes set ina central “acropolis.” The Mayans developed a hieroglyphic form of writing that survives on many of the stelae (carved stone slabs) survived, urging Ezana to shift his allegiance to Arianism and to replace Frumentius with an Arian bishop— evidence that the Roman emperors took important events; in Tikal the first such dated monument is from 292. The first named king of Tikal is Siyaj Chan K’awiil | Chak Tok Ich’aak | [r. 360- : began to push across the Rhine, i and in the early 350s they overran | part of the Rhine frontier, © accupying some old Roman : fortresses. Caesar Julian © engaged ina series of campaigns : against the Franks (356-59) and : drove them from most of the © territory they had taken. In the East, conflict broke _ out again between the Romans : and the Persians, under Shapur © I(r. 309-79], who took advantage : of the political turmoil in the : Roman Empire in the 350s. In © 359, Shapur Il advanced farther » west and took the great Roman » fortress of Amida (modern © Diyarbakir, Turkey). Other towns » were captured and their : populations deported to Persia, (c. 305), and by the reign of = threatening the Roman position : in the East. seriously the religious loyalties of their neighbors. Ezana conducted military campaigns beyond his borders; an inscription speaks of 78), Tikal was by far the largest and most powerful of the Classic Maya cities. i The Roman Empire faced i a invasions on both its western and 4 its eastern borders in the 340s i and 350s. In the West, the Franks | ie Ut of we gu KEY af SQUARE MIL THE AREA OF THE CITY OF TIKAL, c. 400 i expeditions against neighboring . “Gaze, then the Agame, and the « _ by such conquests and the control of trade from sub-Saharan Africa "and Arabia, Aksum would : dominate the region until the : 7th century. The pre-Classic Maya | kingdoms of Guatemala and Mexico underwent a collapse some time in 200-300, with populations declining and Maya civilization, the Classic period (300-900), in which a series of powerful kingdoms emerged. Their great urban centers, such as those at Tikal [in Guatemala] and Palenque [in Mexico), are characterized by huge pyramidal temples and © Northern Maya Central Maya Trade route Maya kingdoms Classic Maya culture originated in lowland cities, such as Uaxactun and Tikal, but spread to the highlands and the Yucatan peninsula. CENTRAL : Siguene,” and it seems his building activity ceasing. But the © Southern Maya MAYA’ . & ' armies may have occupied Meroé = region soon recovered, with the BA Mavenicne ‘ Ue im = city [in northern Sudan). Enriched | emergence of anew phase in Peten fh ? N © & So ae Wg? o ae! we oe ee. g0 SF oe? oi OF oe ce! ako Cer ins 5 PP ye er aoe Ho Ses Be aoe POU a to Wo er? oo “Z x) we Po? oP oF Pr a Cor x se 00 96 55 MES 3 a) oi ee a PF 50? 8 2 Wea soe yp © Here Emperor Julian is seen in religious debate. He attempted to sow discord among Christians by decreeing the return of those who had been exiled for religious reasons. IN CHINA, THE EASTERN JIN DYNASTY (317-420) brought comparative stability to the south of the country. Although many of the emperors were short-lived, the bureaucracy in the southern capital of Nanjing functioned efficiently and the period saw a cultural flowering. Artists such as Gu Kaizhi (c. 345-406) painted masterpieces suchas the Admonitions of the Instructress to the Palace Ladies, as well as producing works on the theory of painting. Northern China, on the other hand, was highly unstable, divided between the Sixteen Kingdoms, most of them ruled by nomadic groups. The Eastern Jin emperors alternated between a defensive stance towards the Sixteen Kingdoms and aggressive campaigns, notably under Mudi (r. 345-61] who retook Sichuan and Luoyang. All these gains were lost, however, under Emperor Aidi (r. 362-65). In 383, the Eastern Jin JULIAN THE APOSTATE (331-63) The nephew of Constantine |, Julian was educated asa Christian but c. 351 became a pagan under the influence of Maximus of Ephesus. When Julian unexpectedly became emperor in 363, he tried to restore paganism in the empire, including banning Christians from teaching literature. He became known THE NUMBER _OF KINGDOMS IN CHINA FROM 304 TO 439 i (under Xiaouwudi) would be : forced to repel a major invasion : in the north of the country. In the Roman Empire, Julian : was proclaimed Augustus by his : troops in 360, so he was a direct : challenge to Constantius. The © threat from the Persians, who » were advancing through Asia Minor, was too great for : Constantius to meet | immediately, He i died in November : 361as he was © finally marching : west to deal with the : revolt. Now sole © emperor, Julian : immediately set about | restoring the role of : paganism in the Roman » Empire, trying to : establish a kind of pagan i orthodoxy and an official | pagan hierarchy of priests : to counter Christianity’s : strengths. He reopened : pagan | restored the © right to sacrifice. » out on a campaign | against Persia, © planning to punish © its leader, Shapur Il, : empire in 359-60. He _ reached Ctesiphon, : but was then forced : Tigris River. Being : short of supplies, the : Roman army : suffered constant : harassment from . the Persians and, in : The pagan reaction but he ceded key border provinces to Persia, which lost him popularity, and he died (probably murdered] within months. An officer of the imperial bodyguard, Valentinian (r. 364-75), was then raised to the throne, and he selected his brother Valens (r. 364-78) to be his co-ruler. Valentinian spent much of his reign along the Rhine dealing with Frankish and Alemannic invaders. He died in 375 after \ suffering some type of seizure, Weer brought on by his anger at i barbarian Quadi : temples, envoys thought to » and have insulted him. The Western ) Roman Empire was then subdivided between Valentinian's two sons Gratian (r. 375-83) and Valentinian Il (r. 375-92). In the Eastern Empire, Valens was forced to spend most of the early 370s in Syria to contain the Persian threat, but growing trouble with barbarians along the Danube later forced him to turn to the Balkans. In 363, Julian set for his attacks on the to retreat up the one such skirmish, Julian was killed Sarmatian dagger This dagger belonged to the Sarmatians, a tribe by Christian writers as “the "was Oe, of Iranian origin who Apostate” for his perceived © On Julian's death the specialized in horseback betrayal of Christianity. » army chose Jovian fighting, and were defeated : (r. 363-64) as emperor, by Valentinian I. o — a Soe o oe seer 3h oe os oo wore Mester a Pee, ona PeGoo Fo Goes Soroe wr on oS 08 ap oes © gor s Ae > oF 90 eS Ei er PO os ae SF oe ap OE AON Pg nes s & a) J 2 eo Xo SS oS 3 = po Grn ie oo go ee wos who? a e ae 6S 9h as - ww? yo ss eo a0 oe se Cony A? ot? Pt oP we Bere, BX oF oF i? Oe se? ae oh OR er VP eno ree? ee? DQ Fo PP AE od" ec Ge ve a oy ae a Preah or ov o> geo 8 SP ess ® Keohane Po eshn™ SF HP” ok Ww oe" oo The church of Hagia Eirene in Istanbul was built by Constantine |. 44... THE BARBARIANS, [ARE] LIKE BEASTS ... BROKEN LOOSE... OVER THE VAST EXTENT... OF COUNTRY. 99 Ammianus Marcellinus, on the Gothic invasion of the Balkans c. 390 IN 376, LARGE GROUPS OF GOTHS ARRIVED AT THE DANUBE FRONTIER, pressing to be admitted to the Roman Empire. The Huns, a new nomadic group from Central Asia, were at their rear, and the Goths feared being squeezed between them and the imperial frontier. Emperor Valens did not wait for reinforcements before marching out to meet the Gothic army. On August 9, 378, near Adrianople, the Romans met the Goths, under Fritigern. Misled by the temporary absence of the Gothic cavalry, Valens attacked but his army was surrounded by the returning barbarian horsemen. Valens was killed and the Eastern army destroyed, leaving the Balkans open to the Goths. Gratian reacted by turning to Theodosius, a Spanish military officer, who he appointed as his imperial colleague. For the next three years Theodosius patiently negotiated, bought off some groups, and struck militarily where he could. In 382, the two sides agreed a truce, whereby the Goths were allowed to settle in the empire in return for providing troops for the Roman army. The Gupta Empire continued to expand under Chandragupta II (r. 375-415) in northern India. He fought against the Sakas, annexing much of northwestern India. He also made an astute marriage alliance that extended his realm to the southwest. Iron pillar of Dethi This iron pillar at Qutb complex on the outskirts of Delhi is said ta have been erected on the orders of Chandragupta II. IN CENTRAL AMERICA, THE MAYAN CITY OF TIKAL had reached the peak of its influence in the late 4th century. In 378, a foreign lord called Siyaj Kak arrived in the city, possibly from Teotihuacan. His arrival, which may represent a military conquest, led to the death of Tikal’s ruler Chak Tok Ich'aak and the destruction of most of Tikal's public monuments. Siyaj Kak installed a new dynasty on the throne of Tikal, possibly drawn from the ruling house of Teotihuacan, with Yax Nuun Ayiin (“Curl Snout”; r. 379-404) as the first ruler. Monuments depict him in northern Mexican, rather than Mayan, dress. Under his rule, Tikal's direct influence extended some 30 miles (50km] away. In the Western Roman Empire, Gratian had spent much of his time since the Battle of Adrianople (378) in northern Italy, where he continued to act against pagans in Rome, ordering the removal of the Altar of Victory from the Senate House in 382. In 383, he led an army north to face an invasion of Gaul by the Alemanni, but was then faced with a revolt in Britain, where the legions declared their commander Magnus Maximus emperor. Many of Gratian’s commanders defected and in August 383 he was captured and executed by Maximus, who had crossed over to Gaul. Theodosius, fearful of trouble with Persia or a Gothic revolt in the Balkans if he moved west, recognized Maximus as his colleague. A peace with Persia in 386, however, St. Jerome (c. 347-420) completed the Vulgate, the first definitive translation of the Bible into Latin, c. 405. St. Ambrose A Roman nobleman by birth, Ambrose was Bishop of Milan from 374 to 397. He exercised a powerful influence over Theodosius |. freed Theodosius to react when Maximus invaded Italy in 387. In August 388, he marched swiftly into northern Italy, capturing Maximus near Aquileia and having him executed. As wellas campaigning against the Goths and Maximus, Theodosius was preoccupied with the imposition of Orthodox Christianity. He moved against the Arians, deposing the Bishop of Constantinople in 380 and calling a councilin 381 in the capital, which reaffirmed the anti-Arian decisions of the Council of Nicaea (see 325). He connived in the destruction of many pagan temples, including the great temple of Serapis in Alexandria, and in 391 he forbade all pagan sacrifices throughout the empire. GUC 44 THE THICKER THE HAY, THE EASIER IT IS MOWED. 99 Alaric the Goth, speaking of his enemies c. 400 IN 392, VALENTINIAN II, WHO HAD CONTINUED TO RULE OVER ITALY, was found hanged. His military commander Arbogast—suspected : by some of Valentinian’s murder— = promptly made Flavius Eugenius, : : Theodosius's side at the Battle of : the Frigidus River and felt they : had not been sufficiently rewarded : for their losses. In 395, they rose © up, led by Alaric (r. 395-410). : Despite an attempt by Stilicho © (c. 365-408), the half-Vandal » commander of the Western : Roman army, to suppress them, : the Goths escaped and marauded : throughout Greece in 396. Stilicho moved against Alaric again in 397, : but once more failed to defeat : him. A brief halt to the Gothic : rampage came after Alaric’s | appointment by the Eastern : Roman government to magister : militum (a senior general). a middle-ranking official, emperor. Theodosius refused to recognize Eugenius, and in 393 he invaded Italy. To gain support in the Senate—where paganism was still strong—the Christian Eugenius revoked all of Theodosius’s anti-pagan laws. But, in August 394, he was defeated by the Theodosian army at the Frigidus River near Aquileia. Theodosius did not enjoy his rule as sole emperor long, dying in January 395. The empire was then divided between his two sons: the older, Arcadius, taking the eastern part and his younger brother, Honorius, taking the North ca Sea 1A ATLANTIC OCEAN Corsica ares. Rome "sardinia S807, ‘gal! Ss a Da Divided in two The split of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western divisions in 395 was permanent. By 476, its Western part would be overrun by barbarians. ANG Sicitia os : western one. Although there was : no clear intention to do so, this i split marked a permanent division; after 395 no one emperor ruled the whole empire again. The Goths had taken part on » Scepidee < § S & = Su == $s ga = ont Creta YPrUs: Sea Syrian Desert KEY ») Eastern Roman Empire Western Roman Empire 700 sce-600ce | THE CLASSICAL AGE FLOURISHING TRADE BETWEEN CONTINENTS A WORLD APART The growth of Roman power in the Mediterranean, the unification of China under the Qin and Han, and the establishment of the Parthian Empire in Iran created three large political blocs that provided stable conditions under which very long-distance trade routes could flourish. The expansion of Han power westward in the that lay on them were able to exact heavy tolls 2nd century BCE brought the Chinese into contact from merchants, which they used to build with new powers they called An-hsi (Persia) and spectacular public monuments. Li-chien (Rome). A Chinese embassy reached the Farther west, in the Mediterranean, expensive court of Mithridates II of Parthia around 115BCE.In goods such as fine wine were carried by sea; the wake of diplomats came merchants, carrying in general land transportation was expensive, the Chinese silk for which both Parthia and Rome and bulky, low-value products tended to be had an insatiable appetite. The main Silk Route produced and consumed locally. ran from China through Central Asia, down into Persia and then across Roman-controlled Syria toward the ports of the Mediterranean. 8 00 @] A thriving trade also spanned the Indian Ocean, +] transporting spices from the East Indies and MILES | southern India to ports in Africa and southern THE LENGTH OF THE Arabia; from here a land route led up through Petra, in present-day Jordan, to Syria. Control of TRADE ROUTE FROM CHANG'AN TO ROME these trade routes was very lucrative, and towns ROMAN TRADE The expansion of the Roman Empire to cover much of Europe, western Asia, and North Africa created largely peaceful conditions in which both internal and external trade could flourish. Amomum Balsam of Judea ) cardamom Cinnamon (uncultivated) Cassia (Chinese cinnamon) Daphnitis (high-grade cinnamon) Malabathrum ~ (finest cinnamon leaf) Frankincense (first quality \~/ Ginger Myrrh (Ethiopian) The price of spice According to the Roman author Pliny, the finest grade of spices such as cinnamon could fetch Nutmeg 300 denarii a Roman pound [1202/340q), which was nearly enough to purchase a male slave. Roman imports Nard (Indian) Pepper The Romans imported huge quantities The Romans paid for their imports 1 9 or =e 1 - of raw materials, including luxury with precious metal and coins, and 200 250 250 300 goods such as gold and ivory and exported products such as wine PRICE IN DENARII cheaper goods such as food. peu, ROR E “ug GERMANY gusta reverorum Aquileia DACIA Byzantium=y ¢ Ay THRACE \ A “Alexandria % a I EGyPT_/ Tibesti Roman exports and glassware. Lake Baikal ® \ ‘ b e ig . ae \ ye ‘ & \ S S ; = $ Altai Mountains 1 , 5 b < S eS Lake = Balkhash, a bigAy Aral ae ea ms Seam Tochar, a cy %s Plateau = Rane : BOSPORAN i Khotan of Tibet KINGDOM prot TRANSONANA ; Panticapaeum re jarakanda: oe ~#{Kerch| ° Us ‘SOGDIANA ibetans ay } o\ 4 Caucasus “sy or 2 ZN P Black Seay ye Zs — aTrapezus > i Hecatompylos, Mimeatasy 2 = Moluccas PARTHIA Iranian ® a «© SS id ~ % Andaman bs ce ae Islands > aS Masulipatam Borneo '% is Gerra Nicobar a) Islands 2 i} \_ Myos Hormus _ Ommana 2 He Arabian oy Soee D» ’ Leuceeome Peninsula Arabian ee a Berenic “s Sea Muziris Teprobane: yom COUN EY OETA INE SO) GE GAy GN) ‘Socotra Sule) World trade Aromata Trade routes c.1CE criss-crossed the whole HAN TRADE The establishment of Chinese control in Central Asia from the late 3rd century BCE opened upa series of routes through Persia to the Mediterranean, which became collectively known as the Silk Route. However, it also invalved the Han emperors in continuous and costly defense of their new territories. Sennar of the classical world. The means of transport used depended on location— Bactrian camels were used in Central Asia, while horses, bullocks, and yaks were used elsewhere. Maritime trade was also extensive—there was an active trading network around the Indian Ocean. Horn of Africa Ethiopian Highlands Bee Maji Sarapion Kushites Juba ® > = z KEY s Roman Empire o and client states Han Empire Trade routes Goods traded Roman © gold ® olive oit Vea) Trans-Saharan © silver @ amber {rudimentary route) tin © precious Silk floss Silk fabric = Indian Ocean © tortoiseshell stones (catties) (pieces) " = Silk Route © ivory silk E Han imports Han exports : qe a (etothing Buying safety The Han valued spices as much as_ Knowledge of silk in China — China @ animals @nenee To guarantee security on their frontiers the Romans did, but they alsosent goes back to at least 2600 BCE, — East Africa @ horses a aes and along trade routes, the Han were trade expeditions to Ferghanain _ but under the Han it became _. Amber ® grain e forced to pay large bribes in silk to Central Asia in search of what a staple export item, alongside cincenss @ spices barbarian groups such as the Hsiung-nu. they called “heavenly horses.” lacquerware. — Other 5 A lalacr {rudimentary route) ge wine ~~= Around 200 stone heads decorated Tiwanaku’s Semi-Subterranean Temple. They may represent the group that founded the city—their flat headdresses denote high status. ALTHOUGH THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE SEEMED RELATIVELY SECURE IN 400, within a decade it had suffered a series of disasters. Gothic raids in 401 and again in 405 ravaged northern Italy. Then on the last day of 406, hordes of Vandals, joined by two other barbarian groups, the Alans and Sueves, crossed the frozen Rhine near Mainz, sacked Treveri (modern Trier, Germany) and Remi (modern Reims, France], and forced their way southwest until they reached the Pyrenees. Meanwhile, the armies of Britain had raised up aseries of usurpers as emperor from 406. The last of these, Constantine Ill (r. 407-11], took most of the remaining Roman troops in Britain and crossed to Gaul in spring 407, — aiming to seize the throne from the | then head of the Western Roman Empire, Honorius. Although he was defeated and captured at Arles in 412, native leaders in Britain had already expelled the last Roman officials there in 410—probably in revenge for their abandonment by Constantine's legion. Britain was now independent from Rome. In 408, Alaric (r. c. 395-410), leader of the Visigoths, invaded Italy once more. The Roman Pepper Gold 0 10,000 20,000 POUNDS 30,000 Ve sy Hse" Roe 5 OPIN de o9™ eh? oe? Silver ' commander Stilicho persuaded the Senate to agree to pay Alaric a huge bribe in exchange for : leaving the city, but there seems to have been a coup d’état and Stilicho was overthrown and killed. In 409, Alaric had Attalus, i the prefect of Rome, declared emperor in an attempt to seize the initiative, but all negotiations : failed. So, on August 24, 410, the Visigoths entered Rome and » subjected it to a three-day sack. : The event shook the entire Roman = : world, but Alaric was unable to : secure domination over Italy, as : he died later the same year. In South America, the city of Tiwanaku, 15 miles (25km) south Ransom demands Alaric initially asked for a huge ransom in return for leaving Rome in 410. Even when he moderated his demands, the 40,000 Senate refused, and Visigoths ride on Rome : Alaric’s sack of Rome in 410 was : particularly shocking, as it was the : first time the city had fallen since the : Gauls took it in 3908ce. | of Lake Titicaca (on the border : between modern Peru and : Bolivia), reached its greatest : size in the 5th century, covering : an area some 3sq miles [8sq km) : in extent. Its central area » contained a lavish series of | ceremonial buildings and temples. These included the : Semi-Subterranean Temple, : decorated with stone heads of : humans and supernatural beings, | and structures such as the : massive and beautifully decorated : Gateway of the Sun. These : were erected by a major pre- : Columbian culture that | dominated the Altiplano (flat | high plateau) of Peru and Bolivia, » and whose influence extended : into northern Bolivia. so the city was sacked. : % oot AY ; ory : og or ao Qe? Cae oe vw Ree oh Ron Ra wr’ o® @ R 3 os SA ae wo Sas Oe RX: 2 ere 44 SO THE VANDALS, HAVING WRESTED LIBYA FROM THE ROMANS IN THIS WAY, MADE IT THEIR OWN... 99 Procopius, Byzantine scholar, from History of the Wars, III iv 1, c. 500-550 THE BARBARIANS WHO HAD INITIALLY CROSSED THE RHINE IN of cities before moving southwest into Aquitania and then crossing the Pyrenees into Spain, where they occupied large swaths of Roman territory. In 416-18, the Roman army commander Constantius persuaded the Visigoths under Wallia [r. 415- 18] to invade Spain. There he smashed the Alans and the Siling Vandals, but allowed some of them to settle in southern Spain and left the Asing Vandals and Sueves in possession of northwestern Spain. Wallia was rewarded with official possession of much of southwestern Spain. AFRICA The barbarian invasions Barbarian groups took more and more KEY Roman Empire On the other side of the i Mediterranean in 429, Boniface, 401 had gone on to sack a number : Africa, revolted against his : long-term adversary Aétius, and the Roman Governor of North called on the Siling Vandals for » help. The Vandal king, Gaiseric : (r. 428-77], crossed over the : Straits of Gibraltar with—it was » said—80,000 of his people and, far : from helping Boniface, swiftly : occupied most of North Africa. In : 435, he made a treaty with the : Romans, recognizing his | occupation of Mauretania » (modern Algeria and Morocco). Gaiseric broke this and in 439 his ' warriors captured Carthage, the : Roman capital there, and set up : anindependent Vandal kingdom. EUROPE 3 * Constantinople eA ROMAN a EMPIRE Mediterranean Sea SASANIAN EMPIRE Burgundians H Sasanian Empire ~ Franks Roman territory in the i srr Ste a first half of the 5th uns utes, Angles; Saxons century, leaving the ~~» Goths ~~ Irish Western emperors = Alans = Picts virtually powerless. ~» Vandals, Alans, Sueves ws AY se x . so Ree ae” eS 5 at SS GO oo Roars GEN ae ge PM ye? oY i of sre o oF > aX am gs* gor SEHE eh UO xo ase? oh Orn? Os oo ah Say “a TG Cg ol ot PF go> re : & ‘ce A Bare = = é aS co = $ oN aS ot cS soe e@ we es oo S ot xe o Comes oy es ae a aot ule oo = 8% Pon & os po re ror % ee Gs ——— COS Oe ys 9,057 0% eh foe wr Pw? 3s CR PB yo? B® NS WE oe 0 Ge o re Pease ye? We a® oe 12° 3 ro? £17 WW Ow OT I. e pow ANE oF ot ao See Me Soe St oe e™ oe Ss" Fg? 09 es RS © oh oF es ros Fe” ee a’ x x MS = . Sy vw 3", yer o> * ORS Sasa o RIES 3 no oP yo aero oro ‘SS sw x SS ot Boo RRC pF oO og? a See ye maa ce = oF oo ce eS ON Ae? a ot Sos s BO Oe? of Eo ye" rego » ae ah We Byer <> We om 9% 0 oes erie oF Xo eo oe) 4 os 3 Cle e Coy rs et OY oe Seg Orne” \o Oe Oe WA Qo ee oe SS oF FPS Ye Ne Be ¥ host OP DM Ge? 0 7 ve wy Rr We ooh oP = evi ph ox Po SE gt eed ae? ge eX aN 6d" 0° oo we ne wo so ow e The baptism of Clovis the first: Clovis’s baptism made him an easier diplomatic rhe Aa fel Ly Ti Ca partner for the eastern Roman Empire than his Arian neighbors. IN 456, THE VISIGOTHS, encouraged by the western Roman emperor Avitus, had invaded the Iberian Peninsula. The Visigothic king Theoderic II (r. 453-66] defeated the Suevic ruler Rechiarius, who was threatening the Roman province of Tarraconensis, and the remaining Sueves retreated. Theoderic took most of Spain for himself, but left the Romans parts of the east coast. This policy was reversed by his successor Euric (r. 466-84), who overran the remaining Roman territories in the late 470s. By the time of Alaric Il |r. 484-507] the Visigothic kingdom encompassed almost all of Spain, as well as Aquitaine and Provence in southern Gaul. The situation in Spain was : repeated elsewhere in the Roman » Empire, and the area of imperial : control shrank to little more than » Italy. Anthemius [r. 467-472) tried to recover some ground, but an : expeditionary force against : Vandal-controlled North Africa in : 468 ended in disaster. In Gaul, Euric conquered almost all © remaining Roman territory in the south by 475. In 472, Anthemius : was overthrown by Gundobad, a : Burgundian. Gundobad placed © Olybrius (r. 472) and Glycerius ) (r. 473-74) on the throne in quick ! succession, but, despairing of the empire's frailty, he then left for * Burgundy. The last embers of the : empire were contested in 475-76, : between Julius Nepos and : Romulus Augustulus, the son of : Orestes, commander of the = Roman army. Feeling that the & Sg KINGDOM OF THE KINGDOM OF S'S BURGUNDIANS THE FRANKS ca Slavs KINGDOM OF rr 9 THE OSTROGOTHS KINGDOM OF & ae THE SUEVES é VA Alemanni ‘Lombards KINGDOM OF THE GEPIDS s ‘a 5 Caucasus a is %, Black Sea \e ~~ = lo ig EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE ac aniay EMPIRE Ferbe, 539 _— Atlas Mountain? AFRICA v2, B > Barbarian kingdoms in Europe c. 500 By 500, most of the former western Roman Empire was divided among several principal barbarian successor states: the Vandals in North Africa, the Visigoths in Spain and southern Gaul, and the Ostrogoths in Italy. KEY ~» Byzantine reconquests Frankish expansion Ostrogothic expanision Sasanian expansion $ Rid ew ye° ot od Cue ‘ ee os RS 0° 6) ce ot pedo KE oe ° we ao ue Coe ges PP) co 93 Stee oe Rd yt 30° we? Rs rr YW ger "ges Cas eC) Erk we pe? ov? \o HM) & Bs) e ® So RS sl G RS RCs oS = ot ¢ a xs eo oh? © cP HH WE eS Poe ee — ee rEg ig? a owt OS JH oKce™ _ aera? we om oS rere qo cP ees ge ew ox 07H ee ere we hh eck oe Aree ces ROMs) wo a oP gh oe PM os® ane s interests of the Germanic barbarians in the army were being ignored, Orestes's deputy, Odoacer, revolted and deposed Romulus in September 476. He did not appoint a new emperor, claiming that he ruled Italy on behalf of the eastern emperor Zeno (r. 474-91]. This marked the end of the Roman Empire in the west after 500 years. However, in the east the Roman Empire survived. The long reign of Theodosius Ill (408-50) had strengthened its position, and after 400 the eastern empire had not had to face such direct threats = from Huns, Goths, Vandals, Alamanns, Burgundians, and Franks as the west. Marcian (r. 450-57) had consolidated the eastern empire's finances, leaving a surplus of 100,000 pounds of gold at : Italy, led by Odoacer. He resolved : this by commissioning the king of the Ostrogoths, Theodoric, to topple Odoacer in 489. By 500, the = eastern Roman Empire under © Anastasius [r. 492-518) was in © little danger of the implosion that had erased its western : counterpart just 25 years earlier. The western Roman Empire : was replaced by a series of | Germanic successor states. Odoacer ruled as king of Italy, but the legitimacy of his rule was always questionable. In 489, an invasion by Theadoric’s Ostrogoths led to a four-year standoff, with Odoacer blockading himself inside the old imperial capital of Ravenna. After the murder of Odoacer in 493, Theodoric established a regime in which the continuation of Roman administrative practices won the loyalty of the old Roman aristocracy. In 497, the eastern emperor Anastasius I recognized Theodoric's right to govern Italy, providing him with a secure base it into Gaul. had emerged as a threat in the late 4th century, and by the 460s they were carving out a kingdom under Childeric. His successor Clovis [r. 481-511) transformed that kingdom, defeating Syagrius, ruler of a Roman enclave around Soissons, and expanding along the Rhine at the expense of the Alamans in the 490s. In 507, he defeated the Visigoths at the Battle of Vouillé and drove them out of most of southwestern Gaul. In the late 490s or early 500s, Clovis converted to his death. Leo! Catholic (r. 457-74) fended Christianity, off residual setting him apart Gothic threats to from other the Balkans, and even made an barbarian rulers who were mostly attempt to Arians (members recover North of an alternative Africa in 468. Christian church). Zeno (474-91] faced the challenge of the new Germanic rulers of In Britain, the expulsion of Roman officials had been followed by a period in which petty kingdoms vied for power. These kingdoms were vulnerable to coastal raiders, and, late in the 5th century, groups of Germanic barbarians (Angles, Saxon brooch Anglo-Saxon art in the 5th century valued abstract geometric patterns, as seen on this brooch. to consolidate his rule and extend In northwestern Gaul the Franks - THEODORIC THE GREAT (454-526) Son of Thiudmir, a king of the Ostrogoths, Theodoric spent 11 years as a Roman hostage, to guarantee the good behavior of his father. He returned home to become king of the Ostrogoths in 471, and for the next 17 years alternately allied with and attacked Roman territories in the Balkans. In 493, Theodoric became the first Ostrogothic king of Italy. His rule was generally pro- Roman, and he was buried in this Roman-style mausoleum. Saxons, and Jutes) settled in : Britain. The arrival of the Saxons has been dated to 449, when they © were invited by the British king © Vortigern. Seven years later, they : revolted and set up a kingdom in © Kent. Aelle founded a kingdom in Sussex around 477 and Cerdic, in | Wessex (around modern Hampshire], by 495. A British : victory at Mons Badonicus around | 500 stemmed the Saxon tide, but : the respite was short-lived. IN THE EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE (generally called the Byzantine Empire from about this date], Anastasius [r. 491-518) faced difficulties in the Balkans, as new groups, including the Bulgars, pressed southward across the Danube between 493 and 502. More serious were problems on the eastern frontier, where the Persians insisted on Byzantine financial subsidies to pay for the defense of strategic passes in the Caucasus against barbarian incursions. In 502, the Persian ruler Kavadh began a war over the issue; the slow Byzantine reaction allowed him to capture Amida as well as several towns in Armenia. Byzantine forces retook Amida in 505, and Kavadh— preoccupied with a Hepthalite invasion in the east—agreed a truce, which lasted until 527. Anastasius was almost 60 when he became emperor in 491, and his place on the throne was only secured by his marriage in 492 to Ariadne, widow of his predecessor Zeno. Almost immediately Zeno's brother Longinus revolted, and it took six years for Anastasius to subdue Longinus's home area of Isauria [in western Asia Minor). Anastasius gained popularity by abolishing the chrysargyron tax for traders and craftsmen. Prosperity continued and over his reign his treasury amassed a surplus of 320,000 pounds of gold. He also implemented monetary reforms in 498 and 512 aimed at stabilizing the currency, which had | suffered successive debasements in the Sth century. In religious Frankish fibula brooch : Fibula brooches were practical as : well as decorative, being used to : fasten clothes.This brooch is | decorated with the heads of birds. terms Anastasius’s reign was less : tranquil, as he was a follower of : Monophysite Christianity, which » held that Christ had only a single : divine nature and did not combine human and divine in his person. © At first, Anastasius supported » Zeno’s Henotikon—an “act of : union” issued in 482 that tried to + broker a compromise between » supporters of the orthodox creed » (established at the Council of © Chalcedon in 452) and the Monophysites. However, later his attitude became more pro- + Monophysite, which led to serious : rioting in 512, and the revolt of an These éth-century ivory panels show Emperor Anastasius. He amassed a vast financial surplus, which his successors spent on expanding the Eastern Roman Empire. : army officer, Vitalian, in Thrace in _ 513. Anastasius left no clear heir, _ andon his death Justin (r. 518-27), : head of the palace guard, seized : the throne. Justin was of humble : origins and relied heavily on his nephew Justinian. He restored | Chalcedonian Christianity and : developed good relations with the | Ostrogoths of Italy and the : Vandals of North Africa. Abroad, : his reign was generally peaceful, : apart froma minor campaign : against Persia in early 527. In Gaul, Clovis, king of the : Franks, had defeated Syagrius, : ruler of a Roman enclave near : Soissons, in 486, followed by the © Alamanns and the Thuringians in i 491. The Visigothic kingdom in } southwestern Gaul was his next | target, and it collapsed after a major Frankish victory at Vouillé : in 507. Clovis's marriage to Clotilde, : daughter of the Burgundian king : Chilperic, led him to convert to _ Catholic Christianity in the 490s, © and he maintained cordial : relations with the Byzantine : emperor Anastasius, who gave : him the title of consul c. 508. Near : the end of his reign, Clovis added | several previously independent i Frankish domains to his kingdom, | notably that of the Ripuarian | Franks. On his death in 511, : Clovis’s kingdom was divided * among his four sons—Theuderic, Childebert, Chlodomir, and © Chlothar. This tradition of © subdivision would weaken the : Merovingian dynasty, as the : descendants of Clovis were known. The Merovingians ruled Francia : [France] until the 8th century. THE REIGN OF THE BYZANTINE EMPEROR JUSTINIAN [r. 527-65} began with important reforms. In 528, he commissioned a new law code to replace the confusion he had inherited. The new code, the Codex Justinianus, came into force in 529 (revised in 534). An enthusiastic builder, Justinian ordered the building of the great Theodora, who Justinian married in 525, had once been a prostitute and the mistress of Hecebolus, the governor of Libya Pentapolis. After the death of his adoptive mother, Empress Lucipina (who had opposed their relationship], Justinian had the law changed in 524 to allow him to marry Theodora. Theodora became a forceful empress, stiffening Justinian’s resolve during the Nika revolt and acting as the protector of Monophysite Christians—she was one herself—during times of persecution. This 6th-century mosaic, from the curch of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy, depicts Emperor Justinian with his retinue of officials, guards, and clergy. : church of Hagia Sophia in 534. i The greatest challenge to his rule = came in 532, when rioting among © the Blue and Green chariot-racing : factions got out of hand and : turned into the Nika Revolt. The : uprising almost caused Justinian i to flee Constantinople, and its : suppression killed 30,000 rebels. With his throne secure, Justinian : looked abroad. In 533 he sent an : army under Belisarius to : Vandal-controlled North Africa, : where Gelimer had deposed King » Hilderic, a Byzantine ally. On | September 13, Belisarius defeated : Gelimer’s army at Ad Decimum, : just outside Carthage, and Vandal | resistance collapsed. Carthage 6 © was occupied and Gelimer was : sent as a captive to Constantinople. The rapid conquest of the Vandal i kingdom encouraged Justinian to : intervene in Italy. An excuse was provided by the murder in April _ : 535 of his friend Amalasuintha, : the Ostrogothic queen. Belisarius launched a strike against Italy in : 535, landing on Sicily with 7,000 : troops. Sicily was secured by the | end of 535, and Belisarius moved : into southern Italy early in 536. He : took Naples after a three-week : siege, causing the Ostrogothic © king, Vitigis, to retreat northward. : On December 9, 536, in a symbolic © restoration of the empire's lost : provinces, the Byzantine army : occupied Rome. Rome was soon : besieged by Goths. Belisarius : finally took the Ostrogothic capital © of Ravenna in 540. Suspicions that : he planned to become emperor : led to his recall, encouraging more : Ostrogothic resistance. # Argentorate Franks *Geneva Burdigalae, relate ones eS eS evo : Black Sea 537-40 @Naissus ——_ rn ame Eo Adrianople 537-40 © “eConstaninople Slavs S . ® Carthago Sardinia 4 2 Thessalonies a 2 Novae% 554 v i ingis ee #Athense é cog Sicily Antioch ciel Me Seer anean Sea “yprus eGyrene A F R 1 e A @ Alexandria KEY Justinian’s reconquests Vandal Italy fell to Justinian's armies in 533, but it was devastated by the 20-year war needed to take it. An attempted Byzantine reconquest of Spain foundered, capturing only a few coastal areas. Byzantine Empire, 527 Justinian’s reconquests * Byzantine campaigns X Battle Persia entered a new period of greatness under Khusrau | (r. 531-79), who came to the throne at a time when the Mazdakites—a populist religious movement—had caused serious social tensions. Khusrau reformed the tax system and established anew army, encouraging poorer nobles and their followers to serve by paying salaries. Khusrau captured Antioch in 540, forcing : Justinian to pay 5,000 pounds of gold to regain it. He attacked : again, in 544, but a siege of Edessa failed and so he made a truce. A further Byzantine- © Persian war (546-51) resulted in a 50-year peace. 46 TO ME, AND TO MANY OTHERS, THESE TWO SEEMED NOT TO BE HUMAN BEINGS, BUT VERITABLE DEMONS... VAMPIRES. 99 Procopius, Byzantine scholar, on Justinian and Empress Theodora, from Secret History, c. 550 46 THE PLAGUE FELL UPON THE WHOLE WORLD... NOT A SINGLE MAN IN THE WHOLE ROMAN EMPIRE COULD ESCAPE... 99 Procopius, Byzantine scholar, from Secret History, c. 550 THE LATTER PART OF JUSTINIAN’S REIGN lacked the achievements of its first half. A serious outbreak of plague, probably bubonic plague, began in Egypt in 540 and caused widespread mortalities, robbing the empire of desperately needed manpower. Tax revenues fell, further weakening the administration, and 544 to reduce inflation. Further outbreaks of plague occurred in the 6th and 7th centuries, sapping the vitality of the Byzantine Empire. In Italy, the Ostrogoths made rapid advances after the departure of Belisarius. Their new king, Totila, secured the area north of the Po River, and in 542 took control of much of central Italy. Belisarius was recalled to retrieve the situation in 544, but Justinian starved him of resources and Rome fell in 546. Although the Byzantines retook Rome in 547, it fell once more to Totila in 550. Justinian sent two huge armies under Artabanes and Narses to finish off the Goths. Artabanes entered Ravenna in June 552, and in July Narses defeated Totila at the Battle of Busta Gallorum in the Apennines. Totila later died of his wounds. There was still some Ostrogoth resistance, but the war in Italy was effectively over. ee, prices rose, leading to K~ och c oF a ‘ ee aye oe ee ag eta © How NEGF 8 ow 8? 66 59D ae? ety e* Po” ae ok af oF oF og? aM ariiod Oo Se ehro™ SQ phere MOK yok “Go a at as oe! 9 nc8? ore’ a Ae oF a0 oe <5 PY OVE x © ue sf Po Pas 2° ee go ge of xe Pen? eo ot ao FO ek iS oy wee eee Weg ieee Oe ve é x 0 105 TRADE AND INVENTION 600-1449 In the Medieval period, trade and travel unified the Old World in a single network, with new ideas and inventions emerging even as the political landscape was transformed. Meanwhile, in the New World, great civilizations reached their peak. Acoin depicting the Eastern Roman, emperor Heraclius. UPHEAVAL IN THE EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE began when the emperor Maurice [r. 582-602) dispatched his armies to the northern Balkans to regain imperial control of the Danube frontier from the Avars (see 568-88). In 602, the army rebelled under officer Phocas and Maurice was killed. Phocas became emperor but Chosroes Il of Sasanian Persia took advantage of the eastern empire's weakness, while the Avars invaded from the north. In 610 the son of the military governor of Roman Africa, Heraclius, executed Phocas and declared himself emperor. In 606, in northern India, Harsha (c. 590-647) acceded to the thrones of Thanesar and Kannauj, establishing the last native Indian empire of ancient times. 44 THE EMPERO HARSHA, NOBLE IN BIRTH AND OF WELL-CHOSEN NAME, THE SURPASSER OF ALL THE VICTORIES WON BY ALL THE KINGS OF ANCIENT TIMES... 99 Banabhatta, Indian poet, from The Deeds of Harsha, c. 640 A Tang dynasty Mendicant friar, with an unusual traveling companion. Tang dynasty horse sculpture Horses were symbols of military prowess, especially warhorses from the western fringes of the empire. SASANIAN CONQUESTS RESTORED THE PERSIAN EMPIRE at the expense of the Byzantines with the falls of Jerusalem in 614 and Egypt in 619. By 618, Constantinople was besieged by the Avars, and their Slavic subjects. In 620, Heraclius bought off the Avars in order to focus on repelling the Persians. In 613 Clothar II (584-629) reunited the Frankish kingdom, bringing an end to civil war. His Edict of Paris, issued in 614, introduced reforms to the Merovingian church and state. In 616-17, rebellions against the despotic rule of Yangdi (r. 604-17) caused the collapse of the Sui dynasty in China. A year later military governor Li Yuan founded the Tang dynasty, which ruled until 906. This 1721 engraving by Austrian architect Johann Fischer von Erlach shows Al-Haram Mosque and Ka’aba in Mecca. MUHAMMAD FIRST RECEIVED A DIVINE REVELATION IN 610 and began to preach in Mecca from 613; but the start of the |slamic era is traditionally marked by the Hegira or hijra, the flight to Medina. Hostility from the Meccan authorities forced Muhammad to flee to Medina with his family and followers in 622. In Medina, Muhammad established a political and religious power base. He fought a series of attacks by Meccan forces, with their ultimate surrender in 630 when he took possession of the Ka‘aba, the holiest shrine in the : Arabian Peninsula. Muhammad's : rule was then unchallenged. Heraclius began to claw back : territory ceded to the Persians, starting at the Battle of Issus in : 622 and later, in 627, at the Battle of Nineveh. In 628 the Sasanian : and Byzantine Empires made : peace, exhausted by decades of war and unaware of the storm brewing to the south. In China the emperor's son, Taizong, consolidated Tang power by suppressing rebellions "across the empire. In 626, : Taizong forced his father to step down and inaugurated a golden age of trade, prosperity, and cultural exchange. Born in Mecca, Muhammad ibn Abdallah worked as a merchant and shepherd before growing discontented and retiring to a life of contemplation. In 610, he received the first of a series of divine revelations—these became the Qu’ran. He preached a monotheistic faith based on complete submission to God [Islam]. Before his death he unified Arabian tribes within his new religion. The ruins of the 7th century Byzantine fortresses at Sbeitla, Tunisia. BY THE TIME OF MUHAMMAD'S: DEATHIN 632, the young Muslim community—united by Islam, which transcended traditional rivalries—was ready for expansion. Although Muhammad had left no guidance as to his successor (caliph), four men tied to the prophet by marriage emerged as 46 THOSE WHO ARE PATIENT IN ADVERSITY AND FORGIVE WRONGS ARE THE DOERS OF EXCELLENCE. 99 Prophet Muhammad the Rashidun, or “rightly guided,” caliphs. The first caliph, Abu Bakr (r. 632-34), suppressed an Arabian rebellion, reestablished Islamic dominion over Arabia, and began the conquest of Syria. His successor Umar [r. 634-44) became caliph in 634 and oversaw the conquest of Syria and the defeat of the Byzantines at Ajnadayn. By 637, Umar controlled Jerusalem and Damascus, and, in the same year, Arab forces conquered Persia (modern Iran and Iraq), occupying the Sasanian capital at Ctesiphon. Umar established several important practices: the creation of garrison towns in conquered territory to separate the invading Arabic forces from the locals; the recruitment of soldiers through slavery and tribal From the Old English epic poem, Beowulf One of 20 burial mounds of this type at Sutton Hoo, Suffolk, England, which conceal the graves and funerary treasures of the royal line of East Anglia. vet MONGOLIA os gob! w fog, 4 __Jutfan %, Tashk Samarkand East China Bactra ch Hangzhou Peshawar Taiwan Philippine Islands he Nagarjunakonda Shina Kanchipuram : KEY -* Xuanzang’s route INDIAN OCEAN : The travels of Xuanzang : The young monk left the Tang capital, Chang an, in around 630. He crossed Central Asia and reached India in 645. : affiliation—those recruited for © fighting were made dependents of © tribal members; and a taxation system that favored Muslims and encouraged conversion but allowed Christians and Jews to : follow their religions. Buddhism became increasingly © influential in Tang China; the : Buddhist monk Xuanzang journeyed far and wide in search of wisdom. His travels became : legendary and foresaw the : increasing mobility of people and : ideas along the Silk Road, made : possible by the power of the Tang and later the caliphate. Also traveling the Silk Road, Nestorian Christians reached China from Borneo Me, 3 ISLAMIC EXPANSION CONTINUED as the Arabs defeated the Persian counterattack at the Battle of Nihavand in 642, dealing the final blow to the Sasanian Empire; the last emperor, Yazdgird III, died in 651, and with him died Zoroastrianism, the religion of the empire. Conversion of the population to IsLam proceeded slowly but steadily over the following centuries. The Arabs met with similar success in Egypt where the Byzantines offered only token resistance. The fall of Alexandria came in 642, the same year that the Muslims founded the military settlement of Fustat, which later became Cairo. The following year the marauding Islamic armies conquered Tripolitania in North Africa as region. In 642, for instance, the Christian king Oswald of | Northumbria, hitherto one of the most powerful kingdoms, was slain by the pagan king Penda of Mercia. The great Anglo-Saxon ship burial at Sutton Hoo, Suffolk—filled with marvelously worked artifacts, weapons and THE LENGTH OF THE SUTTON HOO SHIP dragon's head crest unchecked even by the assassination in 644 of Umar by a Persian slave. His successor, Uthman, promulgated the first written version of the Qu’ran, which had previously been transmitted orally. After launching successful expeditions against the Tibetans and Mongolians, but failing to conquer Korea, the Tang emperor Taizong [r. 626-49) died in 649, and his weak-willed son began to cede increasing influence to the Empress Wu (624-705). In Japan, the Fujiwara clan enacted the Taika reforms in 646, bringing all land into imperial ownership and centralizing power following the Chinese model. In England, Christian converts battled pagan kings for control over territory and the religious and cultural direction of the Sutton Hoo helmet This reconstruction is made from iron with highly decorated panels of 44 THEY BEQUEATHED THE .GLEAMING GOLD, TREASURE "OF MEN, TO EARTH. 99 : treasures—is believed to have : once contained the body of an : Anglo Saxon king. One of the last : burials of this type in England, the | artifacts comprise a fusion of © Christian and non-Christian elements, suggesting transition as Christianity gained in © popularity and strength. Persia in 635. their advance continued, tinned bronze. + 08 a go ot C oO i ¢ AS oF < SS at ae oe RS e730 o SP? od oN a oo hie as oh o™ SS Rives oe 9 res eo? 0 w oh eed oom LSS CS oh oe Hye? ms oY & 2 fe o oe oo v7, S 3g “s oe" Ny os S ro BO Swe ge oP arg ee Atyoeer see Se? S wre 32 AS Weds 20%, oat rs Cor OP Be oP A Ry Avot BO so ot we Pe & yg? e cc aS The weathered landscape of central Anatolia, a Byzantine territory that suffered repeated raids from Arab forces in the 7th century. THE SPLIT BETWEEN SUNNI AND SHIITE MUSLIMS was the outcome of fierce disagreement over how succession to the caliphate ought to be decided; either by selection {as in the case of the first three caliphs] or by hereditary descent. Caliph Uthman [r. 644-56) had ASIA Transoxiana KHAZAR EMPIRE Zabulistan British Isles EUROPE OO enn ¢; “Constantinople « “Motos promoted members of his own wo Syria 8 clan, the Umayyads. He was BTN erusaleril Nejad a : ; : § assassinated in 656 by Egyptian _ Mediterranean Sea oe Arabian & soldiers, nursing grievances over Fane Ms Bove, “sa, Peninsula u their lower status. Ali Ibn Abi A tains Talib became the fourth caliph cee ee Pr AFRICA As Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law—next in line by descent—Ali enjoyed unique status in the Islamic world, but he faced many challenges. At the Battle of the Camel in 656 Ali overcame a revolt by the prophet’s widow Aisha and her allies, opposing his inclusive policies. In 657, the Umayyad emir of Syria, Mu’awiya, asserted his claim on the caliphate; Ali was also challenged by the Kharijis, a sect that objected to the application of the hereditary principle. In 661, Ali was murdered by a Khariji, opening the way for Mu’awiya to declare himself caliph, instituting the Arab Umayyad dynasty. Ali’s supporters formed a party of their own, which evolved into a distinctive branch of Islam, the Shiites, in opposition to the Sunni. Emperor Constans II attempted to reestablish KEY Muslim lands by 656 Byzantine Empire c.610 — Sasanian Empire c.610 : Expansion under the caliphate i The rapid Arab expansion continued throughout : the latter half of the 7th century. Islamic armies pushed into Central Asia and North Africa, bringing them within striking distance of Spain. =» Frankish Kingdoms c.610 : Byzantine claims to Italy by : relocating his court to Rome in 663, but raids deep into Anatolia (modern-day Turkey] by Arab forces led to a collapse in his authority; in 668, he was assassinated and Constantine IV took the throne. Arab incursions into : Anatolia continued and by 670 they » had reached the Byzantine capital, : Constantinople {modern-day » Istanbul), launching the first : siege on the city, which would : last until 677. The Unified Silla kingdom in : Korea brought to an end the long : Three Kingdoms period, with the help of Tang China. In 660 the Tang destroyed the kingdom of Paekche, while in 668 Silla and Tang forces combined H to overcome Koguryo, © thus bringing all of the Korean : Peninsula under Silla control. Stoneware bird This gray stoneware incense burner dates from the Silla kingdom, which was on the verge of becoming the dominant power during Korea's late Three Kingdoms period. x Ss se of SF oe? 0 ia x 6 2 o ore” SO Pi oS pF F* wd soi ore a eres rece P27 oe PO oy? ge 0 x) SES oF Oc" yrs ot fe ow™ Sr ® wre Poe Ro oP eee oh vee a? Os Myo s so" 2 e SS Oe ® s - oes os Ss “x AS OW” 409 COMO oa s COR: we Gris ve & es ger Gm eAe™ —_ go CO oh so 9s eK? gh® 25 ge? oo oe Ore oo s0P o6 oN 7 era B27 4 owt Ac so® ae? as eh? in? os SO? x as 6F oe! xo oss i oo os ec) res ae SW 5 Bs hes ws vs oo BY ow Os SS Rs a. -¢ A Amodern-day depiction of the Battle of Karbala; al-Husayn's death is a NON das commemorated in the annual Shiite ritual of the ashura. THE MAYA CITY-STATE OF TIKAL BEGAN ITS RESURGENCE ajter a century-long period of political and cultural domination by neighboring city-states known as the Tikal hiatus, which had been marked by an absence of inscriptions in the city’s petroglyphic record. An inscription dated to 672 records a military campaign against the rival city-state of Dos Pilas, and in the following decades Tikal restored its position among the Maya of the Late Classic period (600-900). The city's rulers engaged ina construction programme to match their political ambitions, building many impressive structures including massive pyramids, ball courts, causeways, observatories, and palaces. The Arab forces besieging the city of Constantinople (see 670) were unable to breach its massive walls and were eventually beaten off with the use of a new Byzantine secret weapon- “Greek fire” [see 711-20). Its deployment may also have helped destroy the Arab fleet at the Battle of Syllaeum in 677, forcing the caliphate to agree a 30-year truce. The truce bought breathing space for the embattled Byzantine Empire, struggling to hold back the Bulgars, who established the First Bulgarian Empire in 681 on conquered Byzantine territory north of the Balkan mountains. Having consolidated their conquests of Persia and Byzantine North Africa, Arab armies pressed on eastward and westward. In Central Asia, Arab forces crossed the Oxus River in 667 and continued to advance to within range of the Silk Road kingdom of Bukhara. In Africa, they crushed the Berber kingdoms, reaching Tangiers in 683. s Sone 3 e oP os & ee 2 oN Be Se oe ws aot OO Ie Fae Fy oF ws Es oa ee 50° ee FO o8 eo” oe RK Ko Pee rs oe o o> 8 3&3 5 8 ee se or e® OF ge 20% SEN AP geo ooh oi Bo or oi oh i woe eo At the Battle of Karbala in 680 the Shiite leader al-Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of Muhammad, was surrounded by Umayyad troops, deprived of water for several days, and eventually killed. His death was proclaimed a martyrdom by the Shiites, who commemorate it to this day. In China in 690, the Empress Wu finally took the throne in her own name—the only woman in Chinese history to do so—after decades of controlling it through her husband and sons. She even created her own dynasty, Zhou, which she headed until 705. Temple at Tikal Flanking Tikal’s Great Plaza, the 122ft (38m) high Temple I] was built during the construction boom of the Late Classic resurgence. Jerusalem’s Dome of the Rock—a shrine sacred to all three Abrahamic faiths— has an octagonal floorplan and a massive gold dome. THE NUMBER OF MAJOR STONE BUILDINGS CONSTRUCTED IN TIKAL'S LATE CLASSIC PERIOD ABD AL-MALIK HAD BECOME CALIPH IN 485, instituting important changes to the way the caliphate was ruled, centralizing government, insisting that all state business was conducted in Arabic, setting up the barid (a postal/intelligence gathering service], and issuing, around 697, new coinage: the dinar and dirham. He also commissioned a great shrine to be built on the 46 I HAVE NOT SEEN THE EQUAL; NEITHI HAVE I HEARD TELL OF ANYTHING... THAT COULD RIVAL IN GRACE THIS DOME OF THE ROCK... 99 Mukaddasi, Arab geographer, c. 10th century ea Bo] Temple Mount in Jerusalem, the Dome of the Rock (or Qubbat as-Sakhrah], completed in 692. The harsh 10-year rule of the Byzantine emperor Justinian Il had aroused widespread opposition and in 695 he was deposed and had his nose cut off by Leontius, who became emperor in his stead. However, in 698, the loss of Carthage, the last Byzantine stronghold in North Africa, to the Arabs led to another revolt and Leontius suffered the same fate as his predecessor. The turn of the century was a time of change and unrest in the Americas. In North America, the spear was superceded by widespread adoption of the bow and arrow. In the Valley of Mexico around 700, the great city-state of : Ancient Teotihuacan, which once housed _; Teotihuacan over 100,000 people, collapsed, mee ; f i Facic is mask was bringing six centuries of growth | probably tied to and dominance to an end. Social, economic, and environmental factors were probably to blame. = a figurine representing a god. The mask would : have been decorated with : inlays and ear ornaments. 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S aera Caner ae LN er Sac AF aos oe @ oe wore So eae ws ot ae vs ws ess oo wor’ eS ea 129 An illustration from Edward Fitzgerald's translation of the Rubaiyat; of the 600 verses, only around 120 are thought to have been written by Khayyam himself. SOMETIME AROUND THE START OF THE 12TH CENTURY, OMAR KHAYYAM (1048-1131), an astronomer and mathematician in the service of the Seljuk sultans, composed a series of four-line poems, or “roba’iyat,” which became famous thanks to the translation made by Edward Fitzgerald in 1859. Khayyam’s career reflected the Seljuk era. At Samarkand, in the early 1070s, he was able to pursue his mathematical studies thanks to patronage from a local jurist, and under the strong Seljuk sultan Malik Shah (r. 1072-92), Khayyam was invited to Isfahan in 1073 to set upan observatory and lead a team of top scholars. In this period he made many mathematical and astronomical breakthroughs, including an unprecedented accurate measurement of the length of the year to 12 decimal places. Although he is now most famous for the Rubaiyat, it is not certain that Khayyam wrote most or any of the verses involved, and he was little regarded as a poet in his own i : Raymond died in an attempt to time. Much of the current reputation of the work derives from the very free translation by Edward Fitzgerald. The success of the First Crusade (see 1091-1100) owed : much to the disarray of the Islamic : regimes it had dispossessed. The Fatimid Caliphate in Cairo was : rich but decadent; the Abbasids : in Baghdad were little more than : figureheads; the Seljuk Turks had : failed to forge a unified empire, - and instead warlords and tribal | groups had set up a patchwork of : competing states such as Rum, » Danishmend, and Damascus. Throughout the early 12th century, the Crusaders battled constantly against these foes. In 1101, Raymond IV of Toulouse _ (c. 1042-1105) led a new Crusader Baldwin of Bourcq This coin features Baldwin of Bourcq, cousin of Baldwin |, who he succeeded as count of Edessa, then as king of Jerusalem [see 1118). army from Constantinople i against the Sultanate of Rum, taking Ankara in June, only to : be destroyed by Danishmend : Turks in August. Baldwin I of » Jerusalem (c. 1058-1118) | steadily improved his access to : the Mediterranean by taking a : series of coastal cities from the : Fatimids, defeating them at Jaffa in 1102, Acre in 1104, and Ramleh in 1105, although take Tripoli in 1105. Monumental ruins in the city of Great Zimbabwe, capital of the Mwene Mutapa | The 12th-century Cathedral of Empire. After it seized control of the gold trade, the empire grew rich. NOTED FOR ITS FINE ARTS AND CRAFTS and construction of monumental temple mounds, the post-Moche culture, known as the Sican or Lambayeque on the northern coast of Peru, reached its height in the early 11th century. But a prolonged drought, followed by catastrophic flooding, led to cultural and political collapse. In the early 12th century, the state recovered from the convulsions of the 11th century and rebuilt around a new capital at Tucume. New temples were built and the capital flourished until its conquest by the Chimu (see 1375), by which time there were 26 mounds and accompanying enclosures. In central southern Africa, in what is now Zimbabwe, the Mwene Mutapa Empire, also known as Great Zimbabwe after its monumental capital, emerged as the most significant regional power. A kingdom of the Shona peoples that emerged around 900, Mwene Mutapa was initially based on cattle herding, but from around 1100 it took control of the Lucrative trade routes linking the gold, iron, and ivory production centers of the interior to the Arab trading kingdoms on the east coast, which offered luxury goods from Asia. Ceremonial knife This gold knife is from the Middle Sican culture in Peru. The early 1100s mark the threshold between the Middle and Late Sican cultures. St. Nicholas at Novgorod, Russia. THE 12TH CENTURY SAW AN EXPLOSION OF CATHEDRAL BUILDING all over Europe, as population growth, increased wealth, and architectural advances combined with religious zeal, civic pride, and the personal ambition of potentates. The development of the Romanesque and Gothic styles was given expression in the great cathedrals, but each region developed its own, distinctive idiom. In Novgorod, for instance, the Cathedral of St. Nicholas (started in 1113} was given domed cupolas. The Investiture Controversy between the papacy and the Western emperors rumbled on (see 1071-80). Henry IV's failure to reconcile with the papacy had helped bring about his downfall; concerned that the ongoing dispute was undermining royal authority, his own family had conspired against him, and he was imprisoned. His successor, Henry V (1086-1125], launched a powerful expedition to Italy to force an imperial coronation. Under duress (he was a prisoner of Henry at the time], Pope Paschal II offered major concessions on the investiture issue in the Treaty of Sutri, but he repudiated them the following year and the issue remained « unsettled (see 1122). 14 — b NI Stained glass window of a Templar Knight in Warwickshire, England. 46 INTHIS RELIGIOUS ORDER HAS FLOURISHED AND IS REVITALIZED THE ORDER OF KNIGHTHOOD. 99 From The Primitive Rule of the Knights Templar In Jerusalem, in 1119, a group of knights, led by the French Hugues de Payens (c. 1070-1136}, formed an order to protect pilgrims travelling along the dangerous road from Jaffa, on the coast, to the holy city. The new king of Jerusalem, Baldwin Il (cousin of Baldwin | and his successor as count of Edessa], assigned them quarters in part of the Temple Mount compound, next to the site where the Temple of Solomon had once stood. Accordingly, they called themselves the Poor Fellow Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solo mon—also known as the Knights Templar. Bologna University was the first in the western world. It was founded in 1119 (or possibly earlier, depending on the source). Institutions such as Bologna University were the incubators for the philosophical school of thought known as Scholasticism (see panel, right). Guelph and Ghibelline forces join battle in Italy. These factions, based on the German Welf and Hohenstaufen dynasties, would come to dominate Italian politics. IN 1121, MOHAMMAD IB-TUMART, ABERBER LEADER from the Atlas Mountains, was hailed as the al-Mahdi (the Muslim messiah— see 874) and led his forces, known as the Almohads, in a campaign of conquest against Almoravid territories in Africa, A synod at the German town of Worms, in 1122, presided by a papal legate drew up a concordat {agreement} ending the Investiture Controversy—although not the imperial-papal rivalry. A compromise was agreed along the lines already adopted between Henry | of England and Anselm (see 1107), under which the emperor would be involved in investiture but not control it. Essentially it was a victory for the papacy. In 1123, Frankish forces from Jerusalem defeated a Fatimid army at Ibelin, while off the coast at Ascalon (Ashkelon], Venetian ships destroyed the Fatimid fleet. This marked the start of the dominance of Italian maritime power in the Mediterranean. Emperor Henry V died in 1125 with no male heir, and an election was held to choose his successor. The closest heir was Conrad of Swabia (1122-90), of the house of Hohenstaufen [allied to the Salian dynasty and their > | antipapal policies), but the powerful archbishops of Mainz and Cologne angled for the election of a candidate more friendly to the Church. Lothair of Saxony (1075-1137), of the house of Welf, was chosen and became Aristotle in translation A page from a translation | of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, written on vellum—a writing material made from calf skin, which is more durable than Papyrus or paper. The school of thought known as Scholasticism— because it was taught by the scholastics, or school masters—developed as the dominant philosophy of learning in medieval Europe, hand in hand with the emergence of the universities. Scholasticism was an approach to learning that used a method of formal discussion and debating. It became the intellectual basis for medieval religious and philosophical dogma. Emperor Lothair Il (III in some sources}. Immediately he was plunged into a bitter civil war with the Hohenstaufens, and the two opposing sides became entrenched as propapal and proimperial factions known as the Guelphs and Ghibellines respectively. They would plague relations between and within the city-states of northern Italy into the 14th century—long after they had ceased to dominate : philosopher Boethius of one : treatise on logic. This began to : change in the early 12th century, as © the conquest of Islamic areas such : as Toledo and Sicily gave Christian » scholars access to Arabic works. » Increasing exposure to the works : of Aristotle led medieval scholars © to consider him the “master of : those who know” and the chief : authority on matters of reason. © In 1125, the French king © Louis VI (1081-1137) successfully German power politics—as they rallied French nobles to repel became associated with class © an English-German invasion. struggles and reactionary versus = This proved to be amilestone in the reforming parties. : French monarchy’s attempts to The work of Aristotle : assert its authority, and thus (384-322 Bce) had survived in : in the emergence of France as Byzantium and among the Arabs, = a nation-state. but Western Europeans only had H access to a translation by the )) | em =THE APPROXIMATE , fant ; PROPORTION OF ‘ |) ARISTOTLE’S WORK mH SURVIVING TODAY ++ Ae Amosaic shows Roger II being symbolically crowned by Christ. IN 1126, THE JIN—the Jurchen dynasty established by Aguda (see 1115) in Manchuria—turned on their erstwhile Chinese allies, overrunning northern China and seizing the Northern Song capital at Kaifeng. The Jin took control of northern China and moved the capital to Beijing. This marked the end of the Northern Song. However, a Song prince, Gaozong, escaped to the south and established the Southern Song dynasty in Hangzhou in 1127. The death of Pope Honorius, in 1130, resulted in the election of two rival popes, Innocent II and Anacletus Il. During this papal schism, Roger Il, count of Sicily, recognized Anacletus as pope—his reward was the throne of Sicily. Song dynasty porcelain ware The Gingbai (“blue-white”) glaze on this ewer is characteristic of Song dynasty porcelain from southeastern China, where the dynasty survived the Jin invasion. ‘s ty St. Alban’s Chronicle shows Matilda of England holding a charter. THE DEATH OF HENRY I, IN 1135, PITCHED ENGLAND INTO DYNASTIC STRIFE. His only male heir died in 1120 while crossing the English Channel, and although Henry had made his nobles swear allegiance to his daughter, the Empress Matilda (1102-67), she had spent little time in England and her second husband, Geoffrey of Anjou, was unpopular with the English nobles. Among those who had sworn fealty to Matilda was Henry's nephew and ward Stephen of Blois (r. 1135-54). On his uncle’s death he immediately went to London, secured the support of most of the nobles and the Church, and had himself proclaimed king. However, Matilda refused to renounce her claim, and their contest would lead to a period of warfare and breakdown of central authority known as the Anarchy (see 1136-40). In 1133, Lothair II (1070-1137] went to Italy to intervene in the papal schism, installing Innocent Il. In return, the Pope confirmed the Matildine inheritance (the vast estates of Matilda of Tuscany, which she had willed first to the papacy and then to the emperor, sparking a dispute that would become tied up with the Guelph versus Ghibelline contest—|see 1121-25] and crowned Lothair as emperor. In 1135, Lothair pacified his rivals, Conrad of Hohenstaufen and his brother Frederick of Swabia, apparently securing the German crown for his son-in-law Henry the Proud, of the House of Welf. IN 1137, LOTHAIR DIED SUDDENLY while returning froma successful campaign in Italy against Roger of Sicily. Lothair's plans to concentrate German territories in the hands of the Welf clan, and create a stable inheritance for his son-in-law, evaporated when the election of 1138 chose the Waiblinger Conrad of Hohenstaufen (1135-95). The Waiblingers were descended from the dukes of Franconia; the name was later corrupted by the Italians into “Ghibelline.” Conrad set about reversing the grants of Lothair, taking Saxony away from the Welfs, which promptly sparked renewed civil war. In 1139, Matilda entered England to reclaim her crown from the usurper Stephen of Blois. Stephen had failed to Legendary castle Tintagel, Cornwall, where the ruins of a 13th-century castle still stand, is featured in the Arthurian legends created by Geoffrey of Monmouth. An illustration froma 15th-century copy of the History of the Kings of Britain, by Geoffrey of Monmouth, shows Brutus the Trojan setting sail for Britain. strengthen his position since taking the crown, alienating many of his nobles on one hand, and powerful clerics on the other. He particularly blundered by arresting his chief minister Roger, Bishop of Salisbury. At a stroke, he lost many of his ablest administrators, and was henceforth unable to rein in the depredations of barons and other landowners, who became laws unto themselves. The country deteriorated into a state of anarchy famously lamented by the author of the Peterborough Chronicle, who wrote that under Stephen's reign the English “suffered nineteen long winters... when Christ and all his saints slept.” Sometime around 1140, the Welsh cleric Geoffrey of Monmouth (c. 1100-55) wrote the History of the Kings of Britain, an important example of early Anglo-Norman literature that introduced the legend of King Arthur to a European audience. Ascene from the Siege of Damascus, a battle of the Second Crusade. IN 1141, JOHN OF SEVILLE TRANSLATED FROM THE ARABIC the Epitome of the Whole of Astrology, while in 1142 Adelard of Bath translated an Arabic version of Euclid’s Elements of Geometry, one of the founding texts of mathematics. This transmission of learning, ancient and contemporary, via Arabic into Latin, was a key contributor to the emergence of an intellectual renaissance in Europe, and beyond that to the scientific achievements of the Early Modern period (1500-1800). In an attempt to end the civil war that was convulsing Germany, an 1142 meeting, or diet, at Frankfurt confirmed the Welf Henry the Lion (1129-95) as Duke of Saxony [which he had already taken by force). Henry engaged in a vigorous renewal of German expansion to the east, where his Pot helm helmet This type of helmet was typical of those worn by Crusader knights. 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0% ot SY 9o 7. ox oe SENOS Cane oF cor hn ao® AAP? 005 SF? go% art o™ wr oO 6% 9h CRON nC OOK osh OM OT at? er 48% 6 oo hh ge eC eat NaBH e™ teats Se gt ge Ke ata 8 eh 08 oi a ee Hy om SP 50? we ov oT’ ers NOS? o Y Sige? Jo Or ne O° Ss oF a Ro or" xo Pe goh wr oe 3S wy e C) ar’ SS a si s This 13th-century painting by Giotto di Bonodore shows St. Francis of Assisi preaching to the birds. A THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE KILLED DURING THE ALBIGENSIAN CRUSADE THE RENEWAL OF THE ALBIGENSIAN CRUSADE (see 1206-10) in 1226 was in spite of the Pope declaring an “official” end to the Crusade at the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215. In reality, the battle for the south of France descended into vicious guerrilla warfare. Renewal of the Crusade was followed eventually by the submission of Raymond VII, Count ; : of Toulouse —the Cathars’ © protector. Under the Treaty of Meaux [also known as the Peace of Paris) of 1229, the town of : Toulouse was ceded to the : Capetian dynasty—the ruling : house of France from 987 to 1328. : Crusader coin : Arare Crusader coin from the : Kingdom of Jerusalem illustrates the effects of intermingling policy: © the inscription is written in Arabic. : Meanwhile, Emperor Frederick II of Germany realized that peace _ with the Muslims was better than : military adventures that could not : be won. In 1229, he concluded a : treaty with the sultan of Egypt that _ restored Jerusalem and some : surrounding land to the Christians. : The Sixth Crusade thus passed i without bloodshed, although © Frederick was roundly condemned | for this achievment. A former soldier, Francis of Assisi, had founded the | Franciscan order in 1209 (see : 1221-25). In 1224, he received the stigmata (the wounds of Christ), : and he was canonized just two : years after his death in 1226. Cathar stronghold The Cathar castle of Peyrepertuse in the Pyrenees was located ina strategic defensive position on the French-Spanish border. This 14th-century image shows Pope Gregory IX receiving a list of heretics. IN 1231, POPE GREGORY IX established the Papal Inquisition, a campaign by the church against heresy. Prior to 1231, the investigation of heresy had been the responsibility of bishops but it now became the preserve of specialist inquisitors, mostly drawn from the Dominican and Franciscan orders (see 1221-25). In 1233, the Dominicans were charged with bringing the Inquisition to Languedoc in France, where the Cathar heresy clung on despite the military defeat of the Count of Toulouse (see 1226-30). Mongolian expansion continued, although Genghis Khan (see 1201-05) had died in 1227 while suppressing a rebellion in Xia Xia in China. He was succeeded by his second son, Ogodei (c. 1186-1241], who was still more ambitious. Ogodei sent armies to the east and west, leading the final assault on the Chinese Jin Empire (see 1126- 30), which was conquered by 1234. The Southern Song had aided the Mongol advance, but when they tried to seize Kaifeng in northern China in 1235, the Mongols turned on them. In 1235, Sundiata, king of the Keita, a Mande people from sub-Saharan Mali, defeated the Susu king Sumnaguru at the Battle of Kirina. The Susu had destroyed the old Ghana Empire (c. 830-1235], and Sundiata now built a new Mande empire on the ruins of Ghana. 5 sculls Steppe landscape; little changed since the days of the Mongol Empire. ON HIS DEATH, GENGHIS KHAN had informally divided his empire among four of his sons. Given authority over the west, Batu Khan (c. 1207-55] established the Kipchak Khanate, also known as the Golden Horde Khanate. In the winter of 1237, when the frozen rivers allowed his cavalry to cross, Batu invaded Russia. Over the next four years, his armies conquered the Russian principalities and blazed a trail of destruction deep into Central Europe. Under the overlordship of Ogodei (see 1231-35], the expanding reach of the Mongol Empire had important implications for pan-Eurasian trade. The Pax Mongolica or “Mongol Peace” achieved in the lands under Mongolian control made the perilous passage across Central Asia and the silk road increasingly viable, enabling the first direct contact between Europeans and the Chinese since Roman times in around 1240. By 1236, the Teutonic Knights—a military order formed in 1198 by German merchants serving at the Hospital of St. Mary of the Teutons in Jerusalem—had completed the subjugation of the Pomeranians, a pagan tribe in Prussia. Under their grand master, Hermann von Salza (c. 1179-1239), the knights established numerous strongholds, and in 1237, they merged with the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and advanced into Livonia (present- day Estonia and Latvia). IN 1241, THE GERMAN TRADING formed an alliance to protect the Baltic trade routes. This was the first act in the formation of the Hanseatic League [from the medieval Latin hansa, meaning a group or association). Lubeck quickly became the center of expanding German trade in the Baltic region, which extended along the Russian rivers as far as Novgorod, and linked to the European trading centers of England and Flanders. In 1242, the efforts of the Teutonic Knights (see 1236-40] The notion of the Reconquista—the Christian reconquest of Islamic Spain— as a single, continuous project, is a myth, first created by clerical propagandists in the 14th century. In practice, the advance of the Christian kingdoms was by degrees, driven by the need for land, and facilitated by Muslim dissention and advances in military technology. TOWNS OF LUBECK AND HAMBURG This miniature from the Annalistic Code of the 14th century depicts the “Battle of the Ice, fought on the frozen waters of Lake Peipus, Novgorod. Medieval trade : Amanuscript illumination of the port of Hamburg, a founder member of the Hanseatic League, which had its roots in : analliance of 1241 with Luibeck. to extend their Livonian territories eastward and launch the conversion of the Russians from the Greek to the Roman : church were checked by defeat at the Battle of Lake Peipus. Led by Alexander Nevski, prince of Novgorod, IN 1247, FERDINAND III OF CASTILE AND LEON (c. 1199-1252) laid siege to the Moorish city of Seville. It fell to him in 1248, and with it the last Moorish kingdom in Spain—with the exception of Granada. Here, Mohammad ibn-Yusuf ibn Nasr had 1230. By 1238, the Nasrids had begun to reconstruct an old fortress, the Alhambra, which would become one of the wonders of world architecture by the mid-14th century (see 1350-55). In 1246, the emir of Granada agreed to become Ferdinand's vassal, but the last relic of Moorish al-Andalus would resist Christian pressure until 1492 [see 1490-92). Louis IX of France (1214-70) In this 16th-century painting, Ferdinand III, King of Castile and Lon, accepts the surrender of the city of Seville from the Moors in 1248. Theobald of Navarre had | launched a crusade in 1239, but it was so unsuccessful that it is not usually recognized as an © ordinate crusade; Louis’ crusade of 1248 is accounted the Seventh, the last Crusade of this | magnitude ever undertaken. established the Nasrid dynasty in | Louis landed in Egypt and took Damietta without opposition, but in 1250 his army was destroyed by the Egyptians at Fariskur and he was taken captive. His mother, : Blanche of Castile, raised a large ransom to buy his freedom. The Mamluks (or Mamelukes) of Egypt were slave soldiers captured from Turkic and Circassian tribes (of the Pontic- Caspian steppes}, who formed the main component of the Ayyubid army. Eventually they became the Russians : checked the knights’ progress and : Lake Peipus thereafter served as the eastern limit of Livonia. In a series of stunning victories in Eastern and Central Europe, the Mongol armies destroyed all opposition. Early in 1241, an army of horsemen crossed the frozen - Vistula River into Poland, sacking Kracow and defeating an alliance of Poles, Silesians, and Teutonic Knights at Leignitz in April. Just three days later, another : force under Batu (see 1236-40) overwhelmed the Hungarian : army in their camp at Mohi. By : December, Batu was destroying : Pest, the largest city in Hungary. The Mongols had reached the gates of Vienna when, in 1242, the news reached them that Ogodei, the Great Khan, had died. As was traditional, Batu withdrew his forces back to Karakorum, the Mongol capital, for the election of a new leader. Elsewhere, Mongol forces had penetrated the Indian subcontinent, sacking Lahore in 1241. In 1244, Jerusalem, which had been under partial Christian control since Frederick II's treaty with the sultan of Egypt {see 1226-30), was lost to medieval Christians for the final time. The Egyptian sultan, Ayyub, was engaged in a contest with the Syrian branch of the Ayyubids (see 1171-75) at Damascus, which had allied itself with the Christian Crusader kingdoms. In 1244, Ayyub’s forces overran Jerusalem and expelled the Christians. : strong enough to take power for themselves murdering Turan i Shah, the last Ayyubid sultan of : Egypt, in 1250. At first the Mamluk commander Izz-ad-Din Aybak used the sultan’s widow as a puppet ruler, but he soon married her and founded the Mamluk dynasty, the first slave dynasty to hold power in its own name. was much respected throughout Europe and had a reputation for justice. Under his reign, royal control was extended to the Mediterranean, and the previously autonomous realms of Languedoc ; and Provence would become part of French Capetian territories. In 1244, Louis “took the cross,” embarking ona crusade in 1248. THE CRUSADES 3-99 FIRST CRUSADE 19 SECOND CRUSADE 92. THIRD CRUSADE FOURTH CRUSADE FIFTH CRUSADE SIXTH CRUSADE 3-54 SEVENTH CRUSADE 600-1449 | TRADE AND INVENTION \__ eagle head sculpted in gold Lip ornament Human mask AZTEC/MIXTEC AZTEC This eagle-shaped lip plug, or labret, Found at the Great Temple of the would have been worn by a member of Aztecs in their capital Tenochtitlan the Aztec elite. The Mixtec, a conquered (now Mexico City), this greenstone tribe, made most Aztec gold jewelry. mask was a votive offering. THE AZTECS, The Incas, Aztecs, and Maya were advanced civilizations with sophisticated arts and crafts and highly developed graphic systems. The artifacts they created dazzled the medieval European invaders and still fascinate today. The art and culture of the pre-Columbian civilizations of Mesoamerica and the Andes represent the height of ancient traditions stretching back to the 4th millennium BCE. The conquistadors had a devastating effect on these cultures, but the artifacts that survive are a testament to their rich heritage. Much of Incan culture came from client states, such as the Moche, while the Aztecs and Mayans derived theirs from older cultures, such as the Olmecs. Sun stone co? AZTEC ik ; This sun stone, or calendar stone, is the = et largest Aztec sculpture ever found. SS ay ets It represents the Aztecs’ mythical history of the universe. The Sun, believed to have been formed in the most recent era of creation, is at the center. decorated with pictoglyphs band showing days of month disc is 13 ft (4m) across Warrior effigy pot MOCHE This pot from the Moche culture of the north coast of Peru shows a warrior in a headdress grasping a club. Constant warfare was a way of life. heavy wooden handle Ma Am skin of flayed victim Xipe Totec, god of the springtime AZTEC The name of this grisly god translates as “our flayed lord”; he is depicted wearing the skin of a sacrificial victim, denoting the spring renewal of the Earth's “skin.” Obsidian knife AZTEC Long-bladed, razor-sharp obsidian knives such as this one were used by warriors and in the gory human sacrifices practiced by the Aztecs. quahuitl AZTEC Lacking iron or steel, pre-Columbian ericans used obsidian [volcanic glass} to form cutting edges. The maquahuitl—a wooden club fringed with obsidian blades—was a common Aztec weapon Priceless heart AZTEC The heart was considered the most precious organ that could be offered to the gods, and this replica was carved in jade, which the Aztecs regarded as their most valuable substance. sharp obsidian blade d Necklace INCA Turquoise was highly valued by the Incas (Aztecs and Mayans preferred jade and other greenstones], and this rare necklace is made from beads of gold, turquoise, and red shell. a — , “KC , r ornate : headdress a4 hunter disguised Decorative plate MAYA This plate from the Yucatan Maya shows hunting scenes—in the center, a hunter drapes a deer he has caught across his head and shoulders, while around the edges other hunters wear deer masks. Codex Tro-Cortesianus MAYA One of only four surviving Mayan codices, this one records instructions for divination (predicting the future) and priestly rituals. Sheets of bark paper were coated in gesso (chalky paste] to form a writing surface. THE AZT Tomb figurine INCA This cast gold figurine representing an Inca god made up part of the grave goods interred in the tomb of a high-status individual. size and position of knots records numbers heavy earplugs PROCOCBORL Panpipes INCA Known in Europe as the syrinx, the panpipes were among the most common Inca musical instruments. This unusual setis made of quills from the feathers of a condor. ’ elaborate carvings Greenstone yoke MAYA Yokes were worn as protective belts in the ‘ sacred ball game ulama, played by most Jaina figurine Mesoamerican cultures. This ornate yoke male was probably a ceremonial replica. This pottery figure from the island of Jaina shows a powerful man dressed in all his finery, with a heavy bead necklace, massive barstandidets headdress, and ear plugs. peeetentetincers (AQ ECS, INCAS, AND MAYA # Counting device INCA This quipu, or counting device, was a versatile accounting tool that helped the Incas keep track of the tribute and population of their empire—data was recorded in lengths of string and knots. codex was read from top to bottom, then left to right : &S ike] : es even Although not as sophisticated as Maven hiereglypts Aztec pimicaren a cifchy as the one shown could express simple concepts. BY THE MID-13TH CENTURY, THE MEXICA TRIBE—better known today as the Aztecs—were established in the Valley of Mexico. Aztec legend suggests that they migrated from the ancestral homeland of Aztlan in the early 12th century. Settling at Chapultepec, near Lake Texcoco, Mexico, in around 1250, they were soon expelled by the Tepanecs, one of the tribal confederations competing for dominance in the wake of the Toltec collapse in the — early 12th century. Although the Mongols had conquered most of the Russian principalities (see 1236-40), and the Golden Horde Khanate had claimed authority over Russia, surprisingly little changed for the Russians. In return for tribute and military service, the Russian princes were left in power and the Russian Church was not interfered with. Alexander Nevski {c. 1220-63], the prince of Novgorod who had led the Russians to victory against the Teutonic Knights in 1242, became the dominant Russian noble, appointed Grand Duke of Vladimir after his brother was driven out by the Mongols. Under the support of the new Great Khan, Mongke (r. 1251-59), his brothers Kublai and Hulagu renewed the Mongol expansion. Prince of Novgorod This statue depicts Russian leader, Alexander Nevski, whose name derives from the Russian victory at the Battle of the Neva River. i In 1253, Hulagu led a huge army : into Western Asia to conquer the Great Seljuk sultanate (see © 1031-40), while Kublai launched | campaigns against the Southern » Song and the Kingdom of » Nanchao in China. rAS oe a & This illustration of Mongols battling the Seater is from a chronicle By Rashid al-Din, a Muslim minister in the service of the Il-Khanate. HULAGU KHAN (SEE 1251-1255) CONTINUED HIS CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE SELJUKS and other Islamic powers. In 1256, he crushed the Order of the Assassins (see 1081-90), taking their stronghold at Alamut in Persia. In 1258, he sacked Baghdad and executed the Abbasid Caliph—the figurehead of IsLam—in just one of countless atrocities committed by Mongol invaders who massacred hundreds of thousands of Muslims during their campaigns. In 1259, Hulagu penetrated deep into Syria, but as with Batu’s campaign in Europe 18 years earlier (see 1241-45], his progress was halted by news of the death of the Great Khan, and he withdrew his armies while he returned to the Mongolian capital to help select a new leader. Taking advantage of Hulagu’s withdrawal, the Mamluk general al-Zahir Baybars marched north and struck at the Mongol garrisons in Syria. At the Battle of \\ Ayn Jalut in Palestine, y General Baybars defeated the Mongols and expelled them from Palestine and Syria. On his return to Egypt he murdered the sultan and took his place. Distracted by dynastic struggles, and later by a protracted inter-khanate war, Hulagu was not able to : Mongol Empire was halted. : Mamluks gave refuge to a fugitive KUBLAI KHAN (1215-94] The grandson of Genghis Khan, Kublai spent eight years campaigning in southern China before succeeding his brother Mongke as Great Khan in 1260. His own kingdom, the Great Khanate, encompassed Mongolia and China, where he founded the Yuan dynasty, moved the capital to Shangdu, and did much to foster trade and international links. regain his Syrian conquests and the westward expansion of the : formally made sultans of Egypt, © Syria, and the Levant. Alfonso X of Castile (r. 1252- © 1284) won the nickname “the Wise” : thanks to his learning, patronage of : the arts and Castilian literature, © sponsorship of natural philosophy, : and judicial reforms. He oversaw : the final expulsion of the : Almohads (see 1121-25) from : Spain in 1257. Hulagu’s conquests, which encompassed Iran, Iraq, most of Anatolia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, became the Il-Khanate, or Ilkhanate. Meanwhile, the Abbasid prince, setting him up in Cairo as the new caliph. : Recognized as guardians of the Islamic faith, the Mamluks were (46 HADI BEEN PRESENT AT THE CREATION, I WOULD HAVE GIVEN SOME USEFUL HINTS FOR THE BETTER ORDERING OF THE UNIVERSE. 99 Alfonso X, the Wise, on the Ptolemaic system This example of Mamluk architecture from the height of the sultanate adorns the entrance to the mausoleum of Qalawun in Cairo, Egypt. ITALIAN NOBLEMAN AND LATER DOMINICAN MONK, THOMAS AQUINAS (1225-74) became one of the most important philosophers in the history of Western thought. Renowned for his work in uniting faith and reason, Aquinas's period of greatest productivity occurred between 1258 and 1273, when he penned his two best- known works, the Summa contra Gentiles and the Summa Theologiae. In 1261, Michael VIII Paleologus (r. 1259-61), the Byzantine emperor of Nicaea, concluded the Treaty of Nymphaeum with the Genoese, agreeing to cede them all the trading privileges once enjoyed by the Venetians [see 981-990). He had already secured an alliance with the Bulgarians, and was now poised to achieve his dream of re-taking Constantinople : from the Latin Empire (Constantinople and environs, captured from the Byzantines during the fourth crusade), and reconstituting the Byzantine Greek Empire. In July 1261, a Byzantine army took advantage of the absence of the Venetian fleet to cross the Bosporus strait and take Constantinople. The Latin emperor, Baldwin II fled, and the Paleologus Empire was established. Thomas Aquinas This 15th-century altarpiece depicts Thomas Aquinas, whose philosophy still underpins Catholic dogma. Geneta Mariam church in Ethiopia, built during the Solomonid era. : Paleologus would campaign tirelessly to restore lost Byzantine lands. : The Second Baron’s War in England between 1264 and : 1267 was brought about by a combination of newly kindled national consciousness and : resentment at foreign interference. Henry Ill of England (r. 1216-72) had introduced many foreign officers into government and taxed the English heavily to fund overseas adventures and papal extortion. Rebels led by Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, captured the king at Lewes in 1265 and summoned the first European parliament that included elected representatives. Meanwhile, the Mamluks began a push to rid the Holy Land of the Crusader kingdoms once and for all. Cost of paper versus parchment After paper-making technology was introduced to Italy, the cost of vegetable-based paper fell to 1/6 of the cost of animal-based parchment. THE SOLOMONID DYNASTY IN ETHOPIA was founded in 1270 by Yekuno Amlak, displacing the previous Zagwe dynasty, and claiming to have restored the legitimate line of the ancient Christian kings of Aksum. Amlak claimed descent from the biblical Solomon, via the possibly Ethiopian Queen of Sheba. The town of Fabriano in Italy lies close to the Adriatic port of Ancona, which was notable in the 13th century for trade with the Muslim world. This is probably how paper manufacture became established there in the 1270s. Use of animal gelatin in place of more degradable vegetable gel made Fabriano paper more durable, and the town became the principal paper manufacturing site in Europe. In 1270, Louis IX of France made another attempt at crusading, but on the request of Charles of Anjou, the Eighth Crusade was diverted to Tunis, where disease killed Louis and his army. Former stronghold of the Knights Hospitaller, Krak des Chevaliers or “fortress of the knights” in Syria was taken by the Mamluks and fortified further, c KHANATE OFTHE KuaNaTe OFTHE GOLDEN HORDE GREAT KHAN EUROPE Asia / Karakorume Venice @, “ny ‘ Sahara Mecca Mau @Aden AFRICA Travels of Marco Polo To reach China, Marco Polo traveled Anatolia, Iran, and Afghanistan. On h he sailed to Hormuz in Persia via Sumatra. IN 1271,THE VENETIAN MERCHANT : AND EXPLORER, MARCO POLO (c. 1254-1324), traveled to China. Arriving at Kublai Khan’s court in 1275, the Great Khan employed Marco Polo in various capacities. In 1292, he escorted a Mongol princess to Persia, returning to Italy three years later and writing a travel memoir while a prisoner of the Genoese. Polo's memoir, The Travels—known by Italians as Il Milione, because of the belief that it contains a million lies —is a fascinating portrait of the Mongolian Empire at its height. The Pax Mongolica (see 1236-40) allowed freedom of movement through lands under the authority of Il-khanate, and it was said that a virgin with a pot of gold on her head could pass unmolested from Constantinople {modern-day Istanbul) to Beijing. In 1272, Edward Plantagenet (r. 1272-1307), heir apparent to the English throne, returned from Balkh CHINA IL-KHANATE 27,11BET Angkor @ INDIAN OCEAN KEY wot Route of Marco Polo 1271-1295 = Silk road through is return, the Holy Land, having forced the : Mamluks to conclude a 10-year : truce in his attempts to destroy Acre, one of the last remaining : Crusader footholds in Outremer. The Mamluks had already taken © the apparently impregnable Krak : des Chevaliers from the Knights : Hospitallerin 1271. 22 PERCENT THE WORLD LAND AREA COVERED BY THE MONGOL EMPIRE AT ITS HEIGHT oe e x2? 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IN SOUTHERN INDIA, KING KULASEKHARA | (r. 1268-1308] expanded the empire of the Pandyas to its greatest extent. The Pandyas were an ancient Tamil people of the far south, who contended for supremacy over the centuries with neighboring kingdoms such as the Cholas and the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Under Sundara [r. 1251-68] the Pandya empire had expanded dramatically and reduced some neighboring states to vassalage. His son Kulasekhara went on to conquer Kerala, Kongu, and Ceylon, and in 1279 he defeated the last Chola king, Rajendra lll, and annexed his territories. The Divine wind An engraving shows the destruction of the Mongol fleet by the kamikaze (“divine wind’) in 1281. : greatness of the Pandya court was : attested to by Venetian merchant Marco Polo, who would pass : through in 1293, but the empire was short-lived, breaking up in the early 14th century due to family : quarrels and Muslim invasions. By the late 13th century, the Maori had settled in New Zealand (with the exception of Antarctica, | the last land mass to be colonized by humans). Dating the Maori : colonization is contentious. According to estimates based on Maori traditions, the first : Polynesians visited the islands in © the early 10th century, and waves © of colonization climaxed with the : arrival of the Great Fleet of : ocean-going canoes in 1350. Archaeological findings tella slightly different story. However, it : seems likely that Polynesians, : probably from Tahiti, arrived in New Zealand around 1280, : dividing the territory between : hapu (clans). Hapu that traced a = common ancestry formed iwi (tribes), some of which could trace their lineage back to a single waka » houra [ocean-going canoe). Having conquered Korea and : most of China, Kublai Khan | (1215-94) set his sights on i Japan, sending embassies demanding submission as early : as 1268. Under the bold © leadership of the Hojoregency, : the Japanese refused to be i cowed. After a failed invasion © attempt in 1274, Kublai sent : 150,000 men in two huge fleets in 1281, but the Japanese held off the invading : armada until a great typhoon, © known in Japan as the : kamikaze (“divine wind”), : devastated the Mongol fleet. MAORI CARVING Maori culture is noted for its tradition of arts and crafts; chief among these is te toi whakairo (carving). Master craftsmen were believed to channel the voices of the spirits and ancestors, and intricately carved posts and lintels adorning structures, around the marae (sacred space] and waka {canoes} were believed to accumulate and pass on mana (spiritual power). a* yh xe an eo”, a PSN aw We e® a ne’ ee wt COBEN DS yt CORES Qh Oh ck Ne oF 40 2 were. eo a er 0% ged omar ce ge er oe gee ea oF Pa ge BP Pg ra? Ch ree grt 0? Fe 0 oo hee on Rom oP wet ye * ro yw Rr) S VF at 3 ot BF so" Aer yee or oy a oy ss ae oe” < ee ca so We? o_o AP ON vs CORONA GE 9 ag a ge a 3c oO an OF oO ag ae oe & a8 Rar Ae" a 66% eS 5S NESS al J Na S RE e® A e® CORN SOT Se? we oe” x oe RS oe ee <> se ag e RAS ey om s o& ao! of Ore & oh F.0d f) Wo Rs Fo 9 Ce we" e x? t oe 2 2 2 S G RS cs oe Sy OS se 3 s 5 ae 90 a ck Raacs “Se sh no ee OP Fn WF oe oF 8 ge ge® ROCue oF oh Feo = fae SF ys wos ree” se re 9, oveg? o io »? oF K e ORGS o>" a oe? ration” ore aah SS os oto wre ses hor So or at 0% N ek Se soF 0 oF gh G As we om oF ser, Bok Kos w Bye" os eo yer er Ome Qo ye wae Ss Guglielmo Berardi da Narbona was killed at the Battle of Campaldino. IN THE 1280S, A TRIBE OF TURKOMAN NOMADIC HORSEMEN and raiders based in northwestern Anatolia, known as the Ottomans, elected Osman (1258-1354) as their chieftain. At this time, the political map of Anatolia was fractured: the Mongol onslaught had broken up Seljuk Rum and replaced it with many small principalities, while also driving waves of Muslim refugees into the region. Meanwhile, the Byzantine Empire had been successively reduced and broken up by Seljuk and Latin encroachment. Osman was able to lead his tribe ina territorial expansion, rapidly conquering Byzantine territory. Florence, like many other Italian cities, had developed into a largely autonomous republic or commune. It was typically easier for the German emperors—the notional feudal overlords—to grant cities powers of self-government than try to control them directly. Since the mid-13th century, Florence had see-sawed violently between Guelph and Ghibelline regimes [see 1221-25). This Guelph-Ghibelline conflict had gripped the Italian city-states, providing a vehicle for the expression of local class tensions as well as national and international politics. When one faction gained the upper hand ina city, the other was typically expelled. In the 1280s, the Guelphs had the upper hand, and Guelph partisans exiled from Arezzo encouraged them to take up arms against the rival city. The Florentines defeated Arezzo at the Battle of Campaldino, heralding the start of a period of Florentine dominance in Tuscany. Among those battling on the Florentine side was the poet Dante Alighieri (see 1311-17). The line of Slave Kings of Delhi came to an end in 1290 with the seizure of power by Firuz of the Khalji Turks—a tribe living in Afghanistan—thus founding the Khalji dynasty. Firuz is best remembered for releasing into Bengal 1,000 Thugs or Thuggees, cult followers of the goddess Kali devoted to murder and robbery in her name. A ia Ornate Mughal screen This screen fram the main gateway of the Qutb complex in Delhi was built by the Khalji sultan Ala-ud-din, murderer and successor of Firuz. The Eleanor Cross in Geddington, Northamptonshire, England, features an ogee arch, marking a milestone for the English Gothic style. IN 1291, AFTER A DESPERATE SIX-WEEK SIEGE, the Mamluks took Acre, the last major Crusader stronghold in Palestine, anda few months later they took Beirut, the last remnant of the Crusader kingdom known as Outremer (see 1181-85]. After nearly 200 years, Christian presence in the Holy Land was extinguished, and the Mamluks plundered the region to deter future Crusades. To limit the risk of disastrous fires, Venice moved its glass- making industry to the island of Murano in 1291. Venetian glassmakers were the only ones in Europe to master the art of producing clear glass. Their expertise in working with glass had earlier borne fruit in the invention of spectacles (see 1284). Edward | of England [r. 1272- 1307) had married Eleanor of Castile in 1254. Though unpopular with the English, she and Edward enjoyed a happy marriage, and he was devastated when she died in 1290. The following year he ordered the erection of 12 so-called Eleanor crosses to mark the passage of her funeral cortege to London. The contest for mastery of the Mediterranean between Genoa and Venice continued, with a Genoese fleet defeating the Venetians off Laiazzo in 1294. The following year, Genoa put together a huge fleet, with the aim of landing a killer blow. However, despite a formal challenge being made, it was not engaged. Developments in Venetian shipbuilding, however, were EGY Ce LED aay Murano glass This Murano glass vessel dates to around 1330. As wellas increasing fire safety, concentrating the glass industry on an island helped to regulate it and guard its secrets. underway. Capable of carrying more cargo and a larger crew, the construction of the first of the great galleys in 1294 heralded a distinct advantage for the Venetians. THE NUMBER OF GALLEYS IN THE 1295 FLEET OF GENOA William Wallace was outlawed for killing one of Edward's sheriffs in 1296. ? = He was one of the first men to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. THE EXTINCTION OF THE CANMORE DYNASTY, followed by dissent among the Scottish nobles, had allowed Edward | to exercise increasing dominance over the Scots, and in 1292 he awarded the crown to John Balliol. However, in 1295, Balliol made an alliance with England's enemy, France. The following year Edward launched a campaign to subdue the Scots, defeating them at Dunbar, and taking the Stone of Destiny—the Scottish coronation stone—back to London. In 1297, the Scottish nationalist William Wallace [c. 1272-1305] led a revolt against English dominance, overcoming a larger English army at Stirling Bridge, but he was defeated at Falkirk in 1298 and forced into years of guerrilla warfare and overseas fundraising Battle of AARRK 1:4 = Under William Wallace, an estimated 2,500 Scots defeated a much larger force of English soldiers : (numbering up to 10,000) at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. The Genoese-Venetian naval conflict continued, with battles in the Black Sea and the Greek islands. At the Battle of Curzola, in 1298, the Genoese fleet inflicted _ a disastrous defeat on the Venetians, destroying all but a few © of their ships and killing up to 7,000 men. ENGLAND ‘Danzig Southamiplone _ ae ATLANTIC hati ‘AN Paris @ Frankfurt EUROPE FRANCE a aes Venice HUNGARY yy castrog Katts CASTILE fits > (Games Marseilles. wn. Nene Ss. Valencia a eDubrovnik = “ ie *Rome Trebizond Cad Naples Constantinople Malaga . Honein¢—S Bougis wy — hw ePalbrmo @Phocaea Bens ¢ Syracuse Rhodes unis s ‘Famagusta Opiate ‘eBelrut AFRICA Sea Genoese trade routes KEY The Genoese opened a lucrative trade route to the Trade routes North Sea, and competed with Venice to dominate trade with the Byzantines and the East. S ® o RS : HP 5 > » > x Wo” at Z 7 2g go go xe x ro on oo oo ao 3s Ry we & ax ie ee Es rc oe “see ie xe sf io aS es an Oe eo ab 8? so SF Re eas On ah pore os oN 485 CH Kae) An? sod ao WPF oF eS = ¥ ne) Fy > 08 8D ew Og WO Vga Go? Co) Cr Ra) oP nt ci C Chae : O% 5 ee ye ey eS © Sh YO? 205 eS coe at Ws Se ak es ors L— pest? eh re oh \ e oO nS? 0 ° i 0 2 a g™ Apt iie® ers eo oF wo oe wer © pe Wr eox® © a oe yw WE eh g oo 3 os < os The earliest European illustration of a cannon, from a book by Walter de Milemete, presented to the future Edward III of England in 1326. The gilded bronze doors on the Baptistry in Florence, sculpted and cast by Andrea Pisano, took six years to make after he won the commission in 1329. GUNPOWDER WAS SLOWLY BUT STEADILY CHANGING THE FACE OF WARFARE. Arabs and Moors had probably gained knowledge of gunpowder from the Chinese, using cannons in Spain as early as 1284. The Mamluks are believed to have used handguns at Ain Jalut, while the Mongols acquired the technology on conquering China. Europeans probably picked it up from Spain and contact with the Mongols. The first record of cannons forged from iron comes from Metz in 1324; later that year an English fortress in Gascony was bombarded for a month. The Mali Empire of West Africa reached its height under Mansa Musa [r. 1312-37], extending from the Atlantic to Nigeria, and from the Sahara to the rain forest. His great wealth was based on Mali’s gold, and when he traveled on pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324-25, he dispensed so much gold on his THE PERCENTAGE OF TIMBUKTU’S POPULATION AT SANKORE UNIVERSITY passage through Cairo that he destabilized the economy. On his return, he employed an Andalusian architect to build a new palace at Timbuktu, which became a centrer for Islamic scholarship. Mali was later visited by the Moroccan scholar Ibn Battuta (c, 1304-69), who first set out on his travels in 1325. Moscowe Bulgar * > KHANATE OF THE — CHAGATAL Rees ew Sarai GOLDEN HORDE = KHANATE EUROPE ASIA Constantinople Astrakhan. EMPIRE OF THE aim ». GREAT KHAN INDIAN OCEAN FLORENCE IN THE 1320s AND 1330S WAS HOME TO ARTISTS including Giotto di Bondone (c. 1267-1337] and Andrea Pisano (c. 1290-1349]—both seen as forerunners of the Italian Renaissance (see pp.208-09). Giotto painted naturalistic frescoes on the walls of the Basilica of Santa Croce in around 1325, and in 1334 was put in charge of the construction of the Duomo (cathedral). Greatly influenced by Giotto, Pisano won a commission to craft a set of bronze doors for the Baptistry of Florence, finishing them in 1336. The Tughluk dynasty of the Dethi sultanate had expanded the reach of the Muslim state, reducing neighboring Hindu kingdoms to vassal status, and repelling a series of Mongol incursions. In 1325, Muhammad Tughluk (c. 1300-51) murdered his father and took the throne, and established a reputation for cruelty. In 1327, he transferred the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad for defensive reasons, forcing the population to relocate. In 1336, Harihara | and his brother Bukka of the Sangama dynasty in the 44 THE FIRST KING AFTER THE CONQUEST WHO WAS NOT A MAN south, led a revolt that resulted in the establishment of the last great Hindu empire in India, centered on the city of Vijayanagar. Edward II of England invested power in favorites, especially Piers Gaveston (murdered by resentful barons in 1312] and the Despenser family. He also alienated his wife, Isabella of France, who was sent to France in 1325 to arrange the marriage of their son. While there, she became the lover of Roger Mortimer, and when they returned, in 1326, they leda revolt against the king. The Despensers were hanged, Edward was forced to abdicate in favor of his teenage son, and Roger and Isabella ruled as regents. Eight months later, Edward II was horribly murdered. The regents ceded Gascony to France and acknowledged Robert the Bruce as king of an independent Scotland. In 1330, Edward Ill (r.1327- 77) had Mortimer hanged and began Flanders, which triggered a revolt there against French domination. In 1337, Philip VI : of France declared Edward's French territories forfeit, while Edward claimed the French crown, triggering the start of the Hundred Years’ War. Vijayanagar sculpture Lord Hanuman, the Hindu monkey god, is shown carved ona rock surface in Vijayanagar, the heart of the last great Hindu empire. Zaria his own rule. Rising a OF BUSINESS tension with F The travels of Ibn Battuta Roltect o yy ension with France Ibn Battuta’s first journey was the Hajj (pilgrimage) Ibn Battuta was exacerbated by to Mecca. He made seven further journeys, visiting 1325-1345 William Stubbs, English historian, | Edward's embargo on almost every corner of the Muslim world. 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THE AMOUNT IN FLORINS OWED BY EDWARD III To finance his expensive war in France, Edward III of England (r. 1327-77) had taken out huge loans from Florentine bankers, especially the Peruzzi family. When the money ran out, Edward renounced his loan in 1342. With the king of Naples also defaulting on loans, the Peruzzi were bankrupted, throwing Florence into economic chaos. Walter de Brienne, the mercenary duke of Athens, was called in to take power in Florence but, eventually, a mercantile An illustration from Froissart’s Chronicle, of 1346, depicts the Battle of Crécy, at which the English used mobile artillery for the first time. HAVING GAINED MASTERY OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL at the naval battle of Sluys in 1340, Edward III i was free to invade France. He landed in Normandy in 1346 and took Caen, but retreated in the face of a huge French army. At bay, on the borders of the forest of Crécy, Edward took up a defensive position and inflicted a crushing defeat on the forces of Philip VI. This was largely thanks to the indiscipline and arrogance of the French knights and the effectiveness of the Welsh and English longbowmen. At the cost = of a handful of casualties, the English killed tens of thousands, H including the kings of Bohemia : and Majorca, the duke of Lorraine, : the count of Flanders, the count of = Blois, eight other counts, and three archbishops. The English use of combinedaristocratic and = yeoman forces had produced a : powerful new form of army. They would go on to besiege Calais, TOTAL hs, LATION Ye 45% | MI KILLED Plague deaths It is estimated that up to 45 percent of the total population of Europe was killed by the various waves of the THE BLACK DEATH The effects of the Black Death are best recorded in Europe, where it had profound consequences. It depopulated the land, depressed the economy, checked intellectual and artistic progress, changed the social order, contributed to the end of feudalism, and triggered a wave of anti- Semitic pogroms on Jews, who were blamed for the pestilence, forcing many to migrate to Eastern Europe. : which fell in 1347, after a : protracted siege. Also in 1347, the Black Death | : arrived in Europe. It is thought to have been carried initially by © Genoese returning from the : Crimea, where they had been : exposed to it by infected Mongols. Transmitted by fleas that were carried by rats, the plague was spread by ship to the principal | ports, and then to every corner of | Europe and Western Asia. A large 44 WHATEVER THE WORLD FINDS PLEASING, [5 BUT A BRIEF DREAM. 99 Petrarch, Florentine scholar and poet, from Canzoniere Number 1 (c. 1352) THE PAPACY WAS REFORMING ITS BUREAUCRACY and improving its finances under the Avignon popes. In 1348, Clement VI (1291-1352) bought Avignon from Joanne of Naples, and work continued on its papal palace. Scholars and artists were attracted to the papal city, briefly among them the Florentine Francesco Petrarch (1304-74), who had been crowned poet laureate in Rome in 1341. In 1351, Petrarch started to arrange his poems in sonnet form. He was also a scholar, whose translation and popularization of Classical literature contributed to the emergence of humanism, a new school of philosophy that would help to trigger the Renaissance. In 1354, the Nasrid king of Granada, Yusuf 1, was murdered by his son Mohammed V (1338- 91] who took the throne. Under Mohammed, the Alhambra—the fortress-palace of Granada—was further developed, becoming a treasure of Islamic architecture. The Ottomans were invited to Gallipoli, on the Dardanelles (the straits separating Asia from Europe}, by John Cantacuzenus (c. 1292-1383], claimant to the Byzantine throne, to help in his attempt to gain power. Led by Orhan, the Turkish dynasty soon seized the peninsula, securing themselves a foothold in Europe. Architectural jewel The Court of the Lions is at the heart of the Alhambra palace, built by Mohammed V as the winter oligarchy took over. 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The earliest writing, cuneiform, was a form of printing composed of indentations made by a stylus in clay. Printing in the modern sense of the word first arose in 8th-century China with the development of block printing. Blocks of wood carved into bas-relief were used as stamps to reproduce multiple copies of a single text, complete with images, such as the Diamond Sutra, the earliest datable printed book (see 861-70). MECHANICAL PRINTING Block printing was laborious and slow, as each block was specific to one page. Movable type was a major advance [see panel, opposite], first achieved in 44 HE WHO FIRST SHORTENED THE LABOUR OF COPYISTS BY DEVICE OF MOVABLE TYPES WAS ... CREATING A WHOLE NEW DEMOCRATIC WORLD; HE HAD INVENTED eastern Asia but perfected by German printer Johannes Gutenberg (see 1454-55). His printing press was So advanced that, except for refinements such as new typefaces and mechanization of the presses and paper handling, the basic process remained unchanged until the 19th century. In the 1880s, the development of linotype allowed a typesetter to compose lines of type using a keyboard, rather than by hand. Stereotyping made it possible to duplicate complete pages for multiple printing. In the 20th century, filmsetting enabled rapid photographic creation of printing plates. By the end of the century, computers allowed every aspect of printing, from typesetting and graphics to inking and drying, to be done on one machine. THE ART OF PRINTING. 99 Thomas Carlyle, Scottish essayist and historian, 1759-1881 paper is pressed against form to produce imprint . Vi form, or frame, for __/ setting Gutenberg special type wooden coffin, which slides under platen 868 ¢. 2291-2254 BCE Sumerian cuneiform Stamping cuneiform inscriptions, rather than drawing them by hand, is introduced. Stamps are pressed into soft clay bricks, which are then fired. Sumerian cuneiform Japanese dharani scroll 8th century Block printing Printing using carved wooden blocks and ink is known as xylography; the earliest surviving xylographic fragment is a Buddhist dharani scroll from Korea. Block printed book The earliest dated book [entire manuscript) is the Diamond Sutra, a Buddhist text found in a cave in Dunhuang, China. ¢. 1275-1313 Movable type Invented in China in the 11th century, movable type is refined by Wang Shen, who uses over 60,000 wooden types in his treatise. The Diamond Sutra 1377 Movable metal type The first metal movable type is cast in bronze in Korea and is used to produce the Jikji Simche Yojeol, a Buddhist scripture. ¢. 1455-56 The printing press Gutenberg prints the first book in Europe—the Gutenberg or 42-Line Bible (because of the number of lines on each page). Gutenberg’s printing press Early Korean book 1790s-1820s Metal presses The all-metal Columbian printing press is the first to replace the screw with levers and weights. Columbian metal press THE STORY OF PRINTING screw, or spindle, adapted from i i 4 — wine press The key technology in the printing revolution was movable type, in which each character in a script had a corresponding single, small block, or type, square sleeve, allowing lines of type to be assembled, and then i socket reordered for different texts. The first book, printed ae by movable type cast in bronze, was published in Korea in the late 14th century. Gutenberg improved upon this technology by developing a technique that enabled rapid, precision casting of metal type. heavy platen, or i printing 3 plate — : ¥ ink impression raised on paper movable type leather ink balls stuffed with horsehair Letterpress printing with movable type sturdy construction Gutenberg’s press for industrial-scale Gutenberg created a screw - production press for pressing inked type, set on a wooden frame, against a sheet of paper. This was a dramatic improvement on the traditional method of taking impressions by means of rubbing. century-present p Desktop printing —) The laser printer > ee == | offers technology that would once have filled an entire workshop. Laser printer 1886 Linotype A linotype machine allows a typesetter to make up entire lines of type, using a typewriter-like keyboard, rather than hand- compositing letter-by-letter. 1903 Offset printing In offset printing, the inked image is transferred [or offset) from the printing plate to the paper via a rubber sheet, achieving smooth, precise transfer and reducing wear on the plate. 1949 Photocopying Developed by American Chester Carlson at the Xerox Corporation in the US, the photocopier uses electrostatic distribution of powder ink or toner, rather than wet ink, to create an exact copy. Early photocopier Linotype typesetter A 16th-century painting captures the triumphant return of the Doge to Venice after victory over the Genoese. An illustration from Froissart’s Chronicle depicts the Peasants’ Revolt, the first great popular rebellion in English history, led by Wat Tyler, who was executed by the mayor of London. THE WAR OF CHIOGGIA, BETWEEN VENICE AND GENOA, was triggered by the continuing contest for control of the trade routes through the Dardanelles, along which flowed the lucrative trade of the Byzantine Empire and the Silk Road beyond it. In 1376, the Byzantine emperor John V Palaeologus (r. 1341-76) granted to Venice the Aegean island of Tenedos, key to the Dardanelles. Meanwhile, his son and rival Andronicus IV (1348-85) granted it to Genoa. In the ensuing war, the Genoans defeated the Venetians at Pola and, in 1379, seized Chioggia in Italy and blockaded Venice. Under Vittorio Pisano, the Venetians counter- blockaded the Genoese fleet, starving it into submission. Genoese maritime power was broken and Venice now controlled the Levantine trade. 44 NOTHING GREAT [S EVER ACHIEVED WITHOUT MUCH ENDURING. 99 St. Catherine of Siena, (1347-80) In 1376, Dominican mystic and miracle worker Catherine of Siena travelled to Avignon to convince Gregory XI [c. 1336-78} to return the papacy to Rome. A few months later, Gregory went to Rome to attempt to restore order in the Papal States, and died soon Executioner of Cesena The anti-pope Clement VII was knownas the “executioner of Cesena” for his brutal suppression of a rebellion in the Papal States while acting as a papal legate. after. The Roman mob pressured the conclave of cardinals to choose an Italian pope, and Urban VI (c. 1318-89] was duly elected. French cardinals, meanwhile, elected Robert of Geneva (1342-94) as anti-pope Clement VII. The French king, Charles V, threw his weight behind Clement, while Richard II of England allied with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV in supporting the Roman candidate. Thus began the Western, or Great Schism, which saw rival popes installed in Rome and Avignon until 1417. THE BLACK DEATH AND SUBSEQUENT LABOUR SHORTAGES contributed to rising social tension in England. Around 1362, for instance, the poor country priest William Langland had written Piers Plowman, a poem in English sympathizing with the plight of the poor peasant. Churchman and scholar John Wycliffe (or Wiclif] had caused a stir with writings that prefigured Protestantism, and a popular Biblical egalitarian sect, known as the Lollards, partially inspired by Wycliffe, was winning widespread support. In 1377, the so-called Bad Parliament, dominated by the king's son John of Gaunt, Earl of Lancaster and soon-to-be regent to his infant nephew Richard Il (1367- 1400), introduced a poll tax; subsequent parliaments extended it, causing widespread grievance. In 1381, attempts to reintroduce serfdom triggered the Peasants’ Revolt, which saw peasants rising against landlords, burning manors, and destroying records. Up to 100,000 men, under Jack Straw and Wat Tyler, mask usually made _/ of wood or clay marched on London and siezed the Tower, burning the palace of John of Gaunt and killing Archbishop Sudbury, who was blamed for the poll taxes. Richard Il cleverly appeased the rebels; Tyler was executed and the revolt was brutally suppressed. Japanese Noh drama developed in the 14th century, mainly under the aegis of Kanami Kiyotsugo (1333-84) and his son Zeami Motokiyo (1363-1443), who wrote : hundreds of Noh plays and : developed the highly stylized and © symbolic performances. Castilian influence in Portugal : in the 1380s threatened the : independence of the kingdom and : sparked resentment among the Portuguese. An uprising triggered by a nun resulted in © Joao (1358-1453], illegitimate son © of Pedro |, seizing control of the * country. In 1384, John | of Castile : (1358-90) invaded Portugal, but : Joao was elected king by the Portuguese parliament and, with English help, defeated Castile at the Battle of Aljubarrota, in 1385. In doing so, he freed Portugal from Castilian influence and, after marrying the daughter of John of Gaunt, founded the Anglo- Portuguese Avis dynasty. In 1384, Philip the Bold of Burgundy inherited the county of Flanders, adding to his extensive territories. France, ruled by the young and mentally ill Charles VI, was now dominated by rivalry between the houses of Burgundy and Orléans. Noh mask In Noh drama, which involves music, singing, speech, and mime, masks are used by the principal character, and by female and elderly characters. \ Wor JAGIELLO OF LITHUANIA (C. 1362-1434), THE LAST PAGAN RULER in Europe, was crowned king of Poland and converted to Christianity in 1386. Marriage to Jadwiga of Poland united the two kingdoms, and brought Lithuania into the Catholic Church, although pagan traditions lingered on. Timur Leng (see 1356-65] completed his conquest of Persia in 1386 and raided deep into the Caucasus, sacking Tbilisi in king. However, when the army of the Golden Horde attacked his Central Asian territories, in 1387, he was forced to turn back and meet them. It took another nine years for him to destroy the threat. Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1340- diplomat, government official, and Constantinople. Smyriai Alexandriae Cairoe Jerusalem MAMLUK ‘SULTANATE EGYPT = Aswane > The Timurid Empire Established by Timur Leng, the Timurid Empire eventually reached a greater extent even than that of Genghis Khan, but it would not long survive Timur's death. Georgia and capturing the Georgian 1400) was a soldier, scholar, writer, : Traveling pilgrims are shown in an illustration from the Canterbury Tales. This unfinished poem by Geoffrey Chaucer, 17,000 lines Long, vividly illustrates the medieval world view on social, religious, and moral matters. aE Wy Di In Europe, the medieval period saw the vigorous advance of Christianity until it encompassed the entire region (with just a few exceptions). The spectacular success in converting Europe posed extreme challenges to the Church, as it struggled to reconcile temporal and spiritual power. Internal forces would continue to revolutionize the religion. Member of Parliament. He was instrumental in the development © of Middle English—a combination of Old English and French influences. His greatest work, the KHANATE OF THE GOLDEN HORDE few Sarai KEY Campaigns of Timur ©) Extent of Timur’s empire Canterbury Tales, partially modeled on Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio’s Decameron, tells the story of pilgrims on the road to the shrine of Thomas Becket [see 1170); it was begun in 1387. At the Battle of Kosovo, in 1389, the Ottomans defeated the Serbs and Bosnians, smashing the Serbian empire and absorbing most of its territories. The Ottoman leader, Murad, was killed in the battle but his son Bayezid the Thunderbolt (1360-1403) took over. News of Murad’s death prompted the Ottoman vassals in Europe and Anatolia to revolt, but Bayezid swiftly reduced most of them, bringing their territories under direct Ottoman rule. The Ottomans now controlled most of Anatolia and the Balkans south of the Danube. Bayezid introduced the devshirme —the levy of Christian children who were converted to Islam and used in the administration and Janissary corps. A miniature from the Topkapi Museum in Istanbul, shows the Battle of Nicopolis, at which the Ottomans destroyed a crusading army. THE START OF THE MING DYNASTY IN CHINA TRIGGERED CHANGE IN KOREA, which was considered a client state by the Ming. The new Chinese dynasty, but this did not prevent the Ming from threatening to invade. In 1388, Yi Songgye (1335-1408), a leading general who favored the Chinese, seized power in Korea. In 1392, as King Taejo, he founded the Yi dynasty, also known as the Choson [or Joseon), a name taken from an ancient Korean kingdom. Taejo restructured his government on the Chinese model, and instituted wide- ranging land reforms to redistribute estates from the hands of the oligarchy, replacing them with a new class of technocrats known as the yangban. Neo-Confucianism was adopted as the state religion, and a new capital was founded at lasted until 1910. In Japan, the union of the northern and southern imperial courts in 1392 brought to an end the Yoshino period [also known as the Period of Northern and Southern Gyeongbokgung Palace This colossal palace, built by King Taejo (Yi Songgyel in 1395, is also known as the “Palace of Shining Happiness” and the “Palace Greatly Blessed by Heaven.” Ce hae f aa : Courts). During this period, the : line of the emperor Godaigo— : driven out of the capital, Kyoto, by : the Ashikaga shogun Takauji, in Koryo empire had supported the = : court in the mountainous © Yoshino region south of Nara. : Japan was wracked by civil war © until the shogun Ashikaga » Yoshimitsu (1358-1408) ! negotiated a reunification : and brought Ashikaga power : to its apogee. 1336—had maintained a rival The Nicopolis Crusade of : 1396—intended to roll back the © Ottoman advance in the : Balkans—saw a Franco- : Hungarian expedition led by © Sigismund of Hungary humiliatingly crushed at the i Bulgarian town of Nicopolis on © the Danube. A huge army, » featuring volunteers from most © of the Christian states, proved : ill-disciplined. The failure of this : adventure proved that Christian Hanseong (Seoul). The Yi dynasty = Europe had to look to its defense. Be The wall of skulls at the Templo Mayor archaeological site in Mexico City is made from skulls carved in stone, covered with stucco; the Aztecs practised human sacrifice at the vast temples in the centre of Tenochtitlan. FOUNDED BY THE AZTECS IN 1325, the city of Tenochtitlan—existing on the apparently unpromising site of a marshy island in a partially brackish lake—reached its height at the beginning of the 15th century. Tenochtitlan means “Place of the Fruit of the Cactus"—a reference to the vision that supposedly informed the choice of location. In this vision, the tossed heart of a conquered enemy landed on the island where - an eagle wrestled with a snake on a cactus growing out of a rock— as depicted on the present- day Mexican flag. The Aztecs drained the island, reclaiming surrounding land, and joined the land together with causeways. eTenayuca VALLEY OF MEXICO Pantlaco © conquest. After a flood, © Tenochtitlan was laid out ona © grid pattern, with quarters : eS Meanwhile, they expanded their political territory through marriages, alliances, and arranged around a central sacred district, regarded as the center of the world. A huge population of up to 200,000 was supported by intensive agriculture and extensive networks of trade and tribute. The African Songhay kingdom | was centered on the trading metropolis of Gao, in the Niger Bend area of West Africa. Gao had long been a prosperous city thanks to interregional and trans-Saharan trade with the Islamic world, especially in salt, gold, slaves, and ivory. In the mid-13th century, because of the allure of its riches, it became an eastern Songhay gold coin This coin from the Songhay Empire is from the Songhay city of Gao; rich and powertul, the city provided the basis for building the empire. 15th century, Mali declined and Gao won its independence, beginning the growth of a Songhay Empire that would eclipse the other two largest empires of the late Iron Age in REGIONS... FAR AWAY... 99 Zheng He, Chinese explorer HAVING CONQUERED AS FAR AS RUSSIA in the East, Timur Leng (see 1386-90) set his sights on the greatest empire—China. In 1405, he embarked on a campaign, but died en route to China and was buried at his capital, Samarkand. Despite his possibly exaggerated reputation for cruelty, Timur was a devout Muslim and a patron of the arts and architecture. His enormous empire did not long survive him, quickly breaking down into a Timurid state ruled by his son Shah Rukh (1377-1447), which soon fragmented further. In 1404, John the Fearless (1371-1419) became duke of Burgundy, leading opposition to the regency of Louis, duke of Orleans (1372-1407), brother of the mad king, Charles VI of France (1368-1422). In 1407, John ordered the assassination of Louis, triggering civil war between the Burgundians and the Wladyslaw II Jagiello of Poland prepares for the Battle of Tannenberg. THE RELENTLESS ADVANCE OF THE ORDER OF TEUTONIC KNIGHTS (see 1236-40] had brought Prussia and much of the Baltic coast under their control, cutting Poland off from the sea. The union of Poland and Lithuania under King Wladyslaw II Jagiello (c. 1362-1434) posed a new threat to the Order, and the Great Northern War ensued. At the Battle of Tannenberg in 1410— one of the greatest cavalry confrontations of the age—a huge Polish-Lithuanian army of up to 16,500, including Bohemian mercenaries, Russians, and even Tatars (Turkic Mongols}, defeated @Atepehuacdn, ——_Atzacualco : i ; : = ij s province of the Mali West Africa—Ghana and Mali. Armagnacs [named for the count Coltonco/ Tepeyacac@ a 5 h fAzcapotzalco = Empire (see 1231-35). In 1398, Timur Leng (see of Armagnac, the father-in-law of = However, in the early 1356-65) had invaded northern Charles, the new duke of Orleans). Tacuba) ef Altepetiac | g India and destroyed the Dethi The Burgundians, who favored Pott. eee & sultanate with astonishing speed peace with the English, were 3 and terrifying cruelty. Marching popular in Paris and the north, fo bake Map of Tenochtitlan 160 miles (260km] in two days, he | while the Armagnacs, who were / Texcoco Causeways connected captured and massacred 100,000 anti-English and pro-war, had the Chapultepec Tenochtitlan to other fugitives outside Delhi before support of Queen Isabeau of TENOCHTITLAN Settlements onthe ke king the cit dl Bavaria, the great nobles, and re andithé mainland(The sacking the city, supposedly avaria, the great nobles, an Tlacateco Acachinancog . city and its emperor building a huge pyramid fromthe | the south of the country. Wiluees OF .lalmany dominated the Valley skulls of his victims. In 1401, In 1404, Zheng He (1371-1435) BM ttctzincog \ of Mexico. Timur massacred the population —a Muslim captured from Yunnan \ of Baghdad and launched an in China as a boy, castrated, and } KEY invasion of Syria. He then moved pressed into military service—was — street against the Ottomans (see named grand, or high-ranking, j eusacititee = aqueduct 1286-90), occupying Anatolia and eunuch at the imperial court. The Coygesn A Xo causeway restoring the old Turkoman following year he led the first of Ber a ~ dyke principalities. seven epic voyages of discovery. — & Soe oe

90% gat 6 ee AF S08 a e?_o® SF eF PE gg nd 09,0 sro AO ye Oo! SOE rcs oe gS We os & Roe xe od ee g¥ a. xe es Ce. e 2 2 rd ee s we, sf o& ~ RO ae oe Oe? wrens we ee Ce I ege' yan Re a Rt ge x Ker aro? oes aim ot afc" aS? oe net Neo 0% oh woe ew (a Ssh Og os CO Oa a Lae iar 8 iy Pg Fs NP OS “we “se a0” K ae Oe i oO eh ” $e c) ae ae On Be 6? Oo eee AP oo B res ge oe oS 158 the forces of the Teutonic Knights who were around 11,000 strong. The Order was crushed, but Jagiello was unable to keep the powerful Polish nobles in order and thus could not press home his advantage. The Peace of Thorn, concluded the following year, failed to secure Polish access to the Baltic and enabled the Teutonic Knights to regain some of their advantage. Andrei Rublev (c. 1370-1430) was a Russian monk and painter, based at the St. Sergius monastery of the Holy Trinity in Moscow. He worked during a period of monastic revival in Russia, when the Eastern Orthodox Church offered comfort in the face of internecine war and the hated Mongol Yoke—the tribute and service exacted by the Golden Horde. Though inspired by the great icon painter Theophanes the Greek, Rublev was celebrated for pioneering a new, more serene and symmetrical style. The Holy Trinity This detail from Andrei Rublev's greatest icon, painted around 1410, shows the three angels who visited Abraham. Each angel represents a different aspect of the Trinity. This later depiction of the Battle of Agincourt shows cavalry engaged in conflict; around 10,000 French troops were killed or captured. IN 1413, HENRY IV OF ENGLAND DIED and his son, Henry V (1386-1422), came to the throne. : convene a general council—the » Council of Constance—to resolve 5 the split in the Catholic Church This illustration from the Chronicle of Ulrich von Richental shows the papal electors taking their leave from Emperor Sigismund at the Council of Constance. THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE ENDED THE GREAT SCHISM in 1417 by trying and deposing the last : [1361-1419], sparked a Hussite » uprising in Bohemia. This © combined a religious tussle In 1415, Henry concluded an alliance with Burgundy and reasserted the English claim to the French crownas a pretext for : renewing the Hundred Years’ War (see panel, right). In October, Henry inflicted a terrible defeat on © a far superior French force at i Agincourt, taking the Duke of Orleans prisoner, and going on to conquer Normandy. 46 THE LIVING FELL ON TOP OF THE DEAD, AND OTHERS FALLING - ON TOP OF THE LIVING WERE KILLED AS WELL. From Gesta Henrici Ouinti, c. 1416 During Chinese explorer Zheng © He's fourth and greatest i expedition in 1413, he visited Calicut in India, and reached Hormuz on the Persian Gulf, sending ships to explore down the : African coast as far as Malindi in Kenya. The fleet included 63 ships : of up to 260ft (80m) long. i In 1414, anti-pope John XXIII— one of three men claiming to be i pope—was expelled from Rome by | King Ladislas of Naples. John sought refuge with the emperor, Sigismund, who forced him to © known as the Great Schism (see 1373-80). In 1415, the Council : deposed the existing claimants, and condemned the Bohemian priest, religious reformer, and : philosopher Jan Huss, who was executed the same year. antipope, Benedict XIII, and electing Martin V (c. 1348-1431} as the sole true pope. The burning at the stake of Bohemian religious reformer Jan of Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR The series of conflicts from 1337 to 1453, later known as the Hundred Years’ War, was triggered by a combination of factors: tensions over the status of the duchy of Guienne, which belonged to the kings of England but owed sovereignty to the French crown; English claims to that crown, based on descent from the Capetians; anxieties of influence on both sides; and the need of English kings to use foreign adventures to shore up support at home. There should have been little contest between France, the most powerful nation in Europe, and smaller, poorer England, but the English used new tactics and weapons, especially the longbow, to devastating effect. The war drained resources on both sides, but also forged a new degree of national identity for both countries. © between the papacy and : antipapists, with a nationalist : struggle between Czechs (Bohemians and Moravians) and : Germans. The Hussites, made Huss (see 1411-15), and the death © © extreme (Taborite] factions, united i to face a crusading alliance led by : Wenceslaus’ brother, the emperor : Sigismund. The Hussites defeated © the alliance outside Prague. up of moderate (Utraquist) and In 1411, peace was concluded © between Portugal and Castile : (see 1381-85). Portugal now : began to look outward, winning » a foothold on the north coast of Africa at Ceuta in 1415. Explorer | Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) | distinguished himself in the : expedition; his visit to Africa : sparked an interest in exploration, : and he may have set up the first : school of navigation in Europe at _ Sagres, in Portugal (see 1434). THE NUMBER _OF SESSIONS HELD AT THE -42-MONTH- LONG COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE wy c j ee Oa ORY SF cae! we Ss oF oe Kor 3H oo pF OF Bo 308 So ed 6 eT OO Oe oH oF AO? ao RY ee oF sx S ad ie ee ao oul’ > NG we apo eee, ae ar. ee ms & seo Ne Syne ow’? WOOL Rs Coes Ae HK ated ay AM wre” eo ce® OO wae oe re Oe” SO 2 BO tA? "ale! © AY 327 oe. Ab ot nr 8 oF yd Ca Ah Sot Ro &) i es ol XG he w ot of Se es Rs a — Rx om oes” se? _ Wee” Ns ov e xed xe or [oes Po ne! 4a We se? DS S oe eee ce iv, ote eC eC KS e oa oP G > o & a’ RS rs | \ i os West ‘ Ore ru ots, Pre A eee: es © Ape cath ‘a oak Os. OP dh Oe 8 ooo cS 2 ot ef oF ae ae! 3S oo © ne we 9° wee ae 3? se SF SP FW oo We oP ore 12¥ oa? 38 090 SF NP a6 wh or™ ore ae ye Ps A? we F265 ~ att eS 9° de s ase? oe was ook PW oem y® ca Ress Be & 59 Filippo Maria Visconti of Milan sits in state; having assassinated his brother to ~ become duke of Milan, he restored Visconti hegemony over northern Italy. SULTAN MEHMED | (1382-1421) had successfully restored the Ottoman state after the Timurid invasion [see 1401-03], although his navy had come out worse ina conflict with the Venetians at the Battle of Gallipoli in 1416, forcing the Ottomans to recognize Venetian claims in Albania. In 1421, Mehmed died and his son, Murad II (1404-51), became sultan. Domestically, he restored the devshirme practice of : training Christian slaves for key roles in government; externally, he pursued a policy of renewed expansion, beginning with the first Ottoman siege of Constantinople. The siege was unsuccessful and Mehmed was distracted by an uprising led by the Sufi theologian and preacher Sheikh Bedreddin—it was suppressed, and the sheikh was executed. The Visconti family had ruled Milan since Archbishop Otto Visconti rose to power in 1277; their domain had spread to encompass much of northern Italy, reaching its height under Gian Galeazzo (1351-1402), sole ruler from 1385. He had made marriage alliances with the chief monarchs of Europe; was made hereditary duke in 1395; mastered Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Pisa, Siena, Assisi, and Perugia Sultan Murad II Murad defended and extended the Ottoman Empire, and was also a patron of poetry and learning, making his court a cultural center. between 1386 and 1400; and threatened Florence until his death in 1402. Strife between his sons Gian Maria and : Filippo Maria saw this empire : disintegrate, but when Filippo had : Gian assassinated in 1412, he set : about restoring it, regaining Genoa in 1421. The Visconti | patronized the arts and © scholarship, helping to drive the Renaissance (see pp. 208-09) The French had suffered great losses at Agincourt [see 1411- » 15], and in 1420, at the prompting } of the pro-English Burgundians, ‘ Charles VI of France had accepted the Treaty of Troyes and » acknowledged Henry V of England : ashis heir and immediate regent. | The agreement ceded all the : conquered lands up to the Loire to the English and declared the dauphin, Charles, to be illegitimate. The English now : controlled northern France. © In 1422, both Henry and Charles : died, and under the terms of the : Treaty, the infant Henry VI was acclaimed king of both England and France. The dauphin, based at : Bourges, refused to accept this, _ and the Hundred Years’ War (see 1411-15) continued. Gothic architecture, overlain with 15th, 16th, and 17th century additions. IN THE 1420S, THE CULTURAL MOVEMENT known later as the Italian or High Renaissance gathered pace, particularly in the field of painting and the visual arts. In 1424, the sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) completed the gilded bronze doors for the Florence Baptistry that he had been commissioned to make in 1403; the following year he was commissioned for a further set. Working at the same time as Ghiberti were a host of other artists, including Brunelleschi, Jacopo della Quercia, Masaccio, Donatello, Gentile da Fabriano, Jan van Eyck, and many more. The Tribute Money Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Simone Masaccio died at just 27 years old, but created some of the most influential artworks of the Renaissance. Although Florence was the heart of the Renaissance in the 15th century, the other great Italian power centers of Milan, Rome, and Venice also fostered artistic and architectural achievement. In Venice, the Doge’s Palace, which had been : evolving since its origins in the 9th century, embodied many of the architectural high points of the previous six centuries. The current building began to take shape around 1340; work on the side overlooking the Piazzetta did £ not begin until 1424, under Doge Francesco Foscari (1373-1457). In 1424, Timur’s descendant, Ulugh Beg (1394-1449]— astronomer and future Mongol leader—built a great observatory in Samarkand. It was equipped with a 130-ft (40-m] sextant, and Ulugh and his team of scholars cataloged over a thousand stars. Joan of Arc leads troops into battle, wielding a crossbow. Bodkin point This type of arrowhead is an uncomplicated, squared, metal spike, extensively used during the wars of the Middle Ages. THE DAUGHTER OF A FARMER, JOAN OF ARC [1412-31] was 16 when in 1429 voices in her head commanded her to bear aid to the French dauphin (see 1421-22). The English under John, duke of Bedford (1389-1435), had made further gains against the forces of a ee os? e x sO ek S wt oo 3 Cee RRO Nd a . Oa, a! ree neha, 16? 2 COC Oe NE"? ah” hs Painting of the first Medici ruler of Florence, Cosimo. into the Atlantic had discovered : the islands of Madeira and the Azores. Henry personally oversaw the colonization of these Atlantic outposts, successfully establishing them as centers of agricultural production and » forward bases for Portuguese exploration. Henry's next target was to round Cape Bojador on the coast of West Africa, the farthest limit of Portuguese exploration; contemporary European sailors’ lore viewed the seas beyond as a The Windrose The windrose mosaic at Sagres in Portugal—possibly a sundial—was commissioned by Portuguese navigator Prince Henry. trigger the 1434 abandonment of Angkor (see 1146-50) and the transfer of the Khmer capital to Phnom Penh, farther south, although it is also possible that the new location offered better connections for foreign trade. Sponsored by Prince Henry the Navigator (see 1416-20), Portuguese explorers pushing out dangerous and terrifying otherworld. Cape Bojador was finally rounded by Gil Eannes in 1434. The experiences of his sailors on these voyages of : discovery convinced Henry that : the traditional barca ships in use were unsuitable, and he worked with shipwrights to design a new type of vessel, the caravel. This was smaller, lighter, and swifter, with a shallow draft for near- ' shore operations and more space for stores to allow the ships to stay at sea for longer. f ‘5 » a a SX . yy oi ? et we eto a ro Ca Poh ye® 2 'y™ s oe of Roe SS Nancy Pr pH oe gd Se BE e™ ee i gc > 2 oe Py tO) Be os Wo oe ps Ke? Oe i’ CRORES WF & 90) of OP ce Be KP Rn e 9 FeO we y N 8 SATAN poor | WA A Gach eh ooh 98 5B oF sooo as" on As ss Ft ooo oO ok ye e8 Ler oe eer one eto eR oF Ps Keke 50 io, CK: Sa CO TOMO Sie Sa BN o.& eros Se Hah we g Pee Seo NF oe wh Sar e™ eo Oe get oe SS < art woo eS 8 i (a ys ra & 3 v4 x 9 se fe) z oS : SS ee xe PO x s > 0 oP oe 9 ne ~ oe » Aes ee RSI Feo kD go wee PF a? Coes w Rene BY) Rs oe wt aot got wer Ro ee" oe oe Re AS x Oe . as J oe = x RP oh Pati - “oe ad” cone pe? yo ow as? oor ah Boro? . of Se ge oF cP ere Coie WE ge e ei 2 sos ss pl aor gO awe og wre rou ge oto! gies ws SF 9% > ak ee or 161 This manuscript illustration shows. Charles VII entering Paris in triumph. 46 THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE... WILL BE THUS RULED BY KING CHARLES VII... HE WILL ENTER PARIS IN GOOD COMPANY. 99 Joan of Arc, Christian visionary | THOUGH ALLIED WITH THE ENGLISH OCCUPATION OF FRANCE, the Burgundians (see 1404-07) were increasingly concerned at English gains. With the Treaty of Arras, the Burgundians and the French king, Charles Vil, made peace but the English, unwilling to accept the terms, withdrew from negotiations. The following year, the French alliance took Paris from English control. The 1430s saw increasing tension between the papacy and the conciliar movement, which held that the Church ought to be governed by a Church council, rather than an individual pope. Pope Eugenius IV summoned a General Council at Basel in 1431, but it was dominated by antipapal sentiment and, in 1437, he tried to transfer the Council to Ferrara, where it would be more amenable to his influence. Most of the delegates refused to leave Basel, resulting in two concurrent councils. IN 1438, PACHACUTEC [C. 1438- 1672) BECAME THE NINTH INCA KING, or Sapa Inca. His reign heralded the beginning of a grea’ expansion of the Inca realm, which had been confined to the immediate area around Cuzco since its foundation (see 1201- 1205). It began with invasion by the rival Chancas, who besieged Cuzco, and were completely defeated. Inca expansion was facilitated by the sophisticated nature of most of the kingdoms and tribes they conquered; tight-knit, centralized administration focused on the emperor; a genius for organization and record-keeping (despite having no writing); and an : imperial road-building program rivalled only by the Roman Empire. In 1440, the young king of England founded a new college at Eton. The King's College of Our Lady of Eton near Windsor, now known as Eton College, was intended to be part of a large foundation including a massive church, an almshouse, and 70 scholars who were t Founded by King Henry VI of England, construction of Eton college was halted when the king was deposed during the War of the Roses. Amazon Basin PACIFIC OCEAN | KEY : 1) Expansion by 1400 ' Expansion in the reign of Pachacutec : Inca expansion : The Inca Empire had expanded : greatly between 1400 and the end of ' Pachacutec’s reign. It would triple in size by the 16th century. | to receive free education before : going on to King’s College, : Cambridge. With the Ottomans (see 1286-90) occupying territories on all sides of the tiny remnants of the Byzantine Empire, and threatening Constantinople itself, the embattled Byzantine emperor John Vill Palaeologus (see 1448-49) arrived in Europe to plead for help from the Council of Ferrara in 1438. Gold llama statuette The Inca were so rich in gold that emperor Atahualpa was able to offer a ransom of 750 tons of it when captured by conquistadors in 1532. MACHU PICCHU (meaning “Old Peak” in Quechua, the language of the Incas} is a mountaintop citadel about 43 miles (70km) northwest of Cuzco. Construction probably began in the 1440s, under the auspices of Pachacutec. The maximum population of Machu Picchu was possibly only around 1,000, and it is thought that it served as a ceremonial center, as well as being an impregnable stronghold for the Inca elite in case of attack. Resistance to Ottoman occupation of the Balkans increased, and in 1443, a crusading army defeated the Ottomans at Nis, in Bulgaria. The Ottoman sultan, Murad II [see 1421-22], was forced out of retirement to take over from his son, Mehmed II, to whom he had Fresco by Domenico di Bartolo, (c. 1410-1461), of the Sienese school, from Siena’s hospital of Santa Maria della Scala. : attempted to entrust his crown. : At Adrianople, Murad made a : 10-year truce with Albanian » military leader Hunyadi | Skandebeg and other resistors of : Ottoman advance. However, with : the pope preaching crusade, the : resistors were absolved of their : oaths of peace and they launched © anewattack. Led by Hunyadi and » Wladyslaw III of Poland and : Hungary (1424-1444), the : crusading army—the last major » Machu Picchu | High above the Urubamba : Valley in the Peruvian : Andes, on an | inaccessible ridge, lies Machu Picchu, sacred citadel of | the Inca : kings. ol Py od oo ot 2 ak Oe? ew re? 2 o' Se oO e we “ia Qo IP de ov ost oot oe Mer _.go* 38 oe oh a ori’ oF ® ¥ 2 eS XS RS aod Loan oe SP" of OP. OS? a5 2~oo" Ko 4 wh 3" Jor ek e cy e ce cI We Ee < XN Ss APP o> rs Sues sed eS) Pe? &< a3 ie al fe zs fe - of ¥ oe x o BS. oe oa “2 “2 OT AO" oo p 3 ss eee se oy 3 NW oS so rr os age fe) i. se gw oes Ce Fer od Se) sh gt Vito oF oD ry we Ne ef OP geP? eed Rs en orci = Aye? wh oe so eaY oe He ow ce” Ia ce FF 0° ae RG oe? Ow) Wk Co) CS Od oe se Oo oe & CRS BW” ck CS Oe B P69) od or" os ac? RS NPP ve? \ setae Poo ao at aS sl CoS Nee 9s PO AY od WW? ge? ok a ed o 3h oot s A po oo ss i ge BY al Pi “ee co sk en eS a ed WW o- Np ost ss AS 162 e ee RRR Battle of Varna 2 = 1 The Hungarian-led bl crusader army, with a strength of 30,000, suffered heavy losses at the hands of the Ottoman troops, who numbered 60,000. attempt to expel the Ottomans from the Balkans and relieve Constantinople—was decisively crushed by Murad at the Battle of Varna. Wladyslaw disappeared in the battle and was presumed dead, despite rumors of his miraculous survival. The rocky north coast between Paul and Ribeira Grande in Santa Antao in the Cape Verde islands. HENRY THE NAVIGATOR’S EXPENSIVE PROJECT to open up the coast of Africa [see 1434) was met with scepticism at home in Portugal, untilin 1441, one of his ships returned with gold dust and slaves, prompting an acceleration of activity. Between 1444 and 1446, around 35 of Henry's vessels sailed for the West African coast. In 1445, sailing in one of Henry's new caravels, explorer Dinis Dias sighted the mouth of the Senegal River, which offered a trade route deep into the African interior, and rounded Cape Verde, the westernmost point of Africa. Dias returned the following year as part of a fleet of caravels intending to plant the Portuguese flag and explore what Henry believed might be the western branch of the Nile, while another of Henry's captains, Nufio Tristao, sighted the Gambia River. The marriage of Margaret of Anjou (c. 1430-82] to Henry VI of England in 1445 was negotiated by William de la Pole, chief advisor to the king and power behind the throne, whose aim was to stop the war in France (see 1435-37]. At first, the match and the bride were popular in England, but in 1448, the territory of Maine in northern France was lost to Charles VIl and the queen was blamed for her influence over the weak king. Margaret would survive this, however, and become an important player in the Wars of the Roses {see 1454-55). The death of Filippo Maria Visconti in 1447 signaled the end of the Visconti ducal line of Milan (see 1421-22). There were multiple claimants to the ducal throne, and eager to avoid domination by a foreigner, the Milanese powers immediately constituted the Aurea Repubblica Ambrosiana of Milan, or the Ambrosian Republic, but they faced insurmountable obstacles. Riven by internal dissension and unwilling to lose control of the other cities controlled by Milan, they were soon forced to turn military control over toa condotierre, or mercenary soldier- leader—the powerful Muzio Attendolo, nicknamed Sforza meaning “exert” or “force.” In the mid-15th century, the Shona kingdom of Mwene Mutapa, also known as Great Zimbabwe (see 1106-10), was nearing the end of its glory days. By this time, the riches of the gold fields had funded construction of the Great Enclosure, an elliptical space enclosed by a giant wall 800ft (244m) around, and up to 36 ft (11 m] high in places, built from almost a million granite blocks. Population of Great Zimbabwe Golden age of Great Zimbabwe In the mid-15th century, the population of Great Zimbabwe was just under half the size of the population of London. 7) DF .. Illustration from a Muromachi period manuscript. The arts flourished in Japan under Ashikaga patronage. IN 1449, ASHIKAGA YOSHIMASA (1435-90) BECAME SHOGUN, or military dictator, of Japan. Although his reign marked a cultural highpoint of the Ashikaga, or Muromachi period (1336-1573) it was also a period of increasing civil strife. Repeated famines triggered constant uprisings, while the Ashikaga practice of issuing tokuseirei or “acts of grace” to cancel debts, damaged the economy. Despite this, Yoshimasa presided over a cultural flowering at his Higashiyama estate. The new pope, Nicholas V, elected in 1447, was intent on bringing an end to the schism caused by his predecessor's clash with the Council of Basel (see 1435-37], and on restoring peace to Italy and achieving harmonious relations with other rulers. At the Concordat of Vienna in 1448, he made concessions to Emperor Frederick Ill and the other German princes, who in return abandoned the Council of Basel and recognized some papal powers. The following year, the Council of Basel finally disbanded and the anti-pope, Felix V, abdicated in return for a cardinalship. This marked the final victory of the papacy over the conciliar movement. Following the death of Byzantine emperor John VIII, his brother Constantine XI Palaeologus [see panel, right) acceded to the throne = in Constantinople—he would be the last Byzantine emperor. The Ottomans had defeated another of : Jan Hunyadi’s crusades to clear PALAEOLOGUS (1404-53) Constantine XI Palaeologus succeeded to the remnants of a once-great empire, left without the resources to defend itself. He was the last emperor of Byzantium, a state that had lasted throughout the medieval period, providing a unique bridge between east and west, ancient and modern. He died on the walls of Constantinople, having done everything in his power to secure its defense. : them from the Balkans at the : second Battle of Kosovo in 1448, : regaining control of Albania. It | was Clear that there would be : no European rescue for the © embattled Byzantines. The | Ottomans were closing in on Constantinople. o oF 99 oe Ca) oe & ge Roe so age es) 5 iv RC 2 e&® of Or Qh aN ~ 0 ghd oo" oh oe on™ ye i ox ow ~ COA RO ae oO ee BOP 2 x05 ae os SS J yo Se SB ge Pie VP? oS) ot oe Nt PN wr oF oS Wr a SERS wins Hah oe om we ahve Ww ws ae fo ee Ruy a oo ro os a er” Woh oY od eo i QF OE of Wm OF 8 pig oe! cS 3™ ew oa Be eS we See oe Ker ge WS ci 90 pr oe ie (2 oe fe i < 3 RS cy mal od) ee es? xor® “4 es) ss BP NS G OY Pe 8? ee oO ae Cr 6? no gS Orne: SP Epe so Tata) Pe. orn Oa A ge pe peo" OOD Se oo? es Feo hr as a8 PaO RPP OP xo v De woO”«1 so eth 407 os iS re were Wg? or NP gs Sv 3 6? 1B PN es x o rene gic wat SOS cee wae 1A Oe Bice FS * Rae WM 6 o™ ADH Tg so? e Cees ia oN ce! es woe con oP o™ oy. AP ee gs ORO CRC x9 os 4 FO ADT el gs oe? & yan” oe8 SP pee oT areicee ew a oe Le goo? at ot gO INO gee power. Philip the Good's heir, _ Charles the Bold, inherited this © state within states in 1467 and | determined not just to make it a continuous territory—which by : 1472 he had succeeded in doing : through an audacious : combination of purchase and : Expansion of Burgundy North : This map shows the Sea © territories held by Charles | the Bold, who pursued eae DUCHY : an aggressive “Ne Bruges BRABANT H fee ’ Ant : expansionist policy. Bobs ewe? bn : The duchies of : Bar and Lorraine COUNTY OF ‘eCologne : gave Charles aeeL HOLY z COUNTY OF gat oat VERMANDOIS ee. aN oe TAGE df tuxempouro EMPIRE stretch of lan | by 1475. mars eLuxembourg FRANCE : KEY i Territories BURGUNDY, sont oF held 1467 | @ Territories COUNTY OF oy Zurich | added by 1475 eee y COUNTY Border of Holy OF MACON conquest—but to assert its independence as a separate kingdom. The Burgundians were inevitably opposed by the infinitely : more calculating French king, Louis XI. In little more than four : months in1476, they suffered two. calamitous defeats by Swiss mercenary armies in the pay of Louis—at Grandson and at Morat in modern northwest Switzerland. The rigidly hierarchical Aztec Empire (1428-1521) became © a formidable military force, imposing itself with brutal finality on its neighbors in central Mexico from Tenochtitlan, its capital. : Axayacatl, who came to the : Aztec throne in 1469, added substantially to the empire, mainly with the conquest of the state of Tlatelolco in 1473. oe ek x ws we? Fhe ok WF oO os > ss , J wee oP 9% ue Ree, uy xo VO eo! Pte ob ates x am wich os ee Heme asker as artic Peo i Proo® ooh ht os x x Ab eof ot! Dr oh dd Ae ak SGP or 62 o® Ahh 9880. Are ® goo oF 267 a oo PP gO 90" oO a0? 1 9 op eS BOS SF Foo He eh SCS ru LACES a ot S$? got or? Kt y™ Yo Ow cd At oh 3 oe Ss Eee Po es Kira yw a oc ee “oe ol e fs Ar i a ae 3 ie a oe os z ” 2 ee? So ye ge et oes tt coms AF co e ae Pat we 398 pon gee Ce oo be Pon Ore PO Ve ore Ah oor on ui? ye Ee ger as? 0? do Wo ae oF oe ot omg S eo om ole ger ge oF Of oS a ss ho Ny 170 IN JANUARY 1477, CHARLES THE BOLD’S Burgundian forces confronted the Swiss again, at Nancy in Lorraine. They were comprehensively routed and the body of the duke was discovered face down in a frozen pond. While Louis XI (see 1461) seized the Burgundians’ French territories, those in the Low Countries passed to the Habsburgs with the marriage of Charles's only child, Margaret, to the future Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian |. William Caxton (c. 1420-92) was an English merchant whose continental travels introduced him to printing. He established the first printing press in England in 1476, printing the first book a year later. He published 87 books, many also translated by him. Caxton’s printing press The first printing press in England, established by William Caxton in Westminster, London, produced its first book in 1477. The Battle of Nancy was the final and decisive Burgundian War, which left thousands dead, including the Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold. 44 IT IS NOT NECESSARY TO HOPE IN ORDER TO UNDERTAKE, NOR TO SUCCEED IN ORDER TO PERSEVERE. 99 Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (1433-77) The Ottomans continued their expansion with the Treaty of Constantinople of 1479, which ended the intermittent Ottoman- Venetian war that had begun in 1463. It confirmed the Ottomans asa naval power of growing importance. It also brought with it Ottoman control of the Greek island Negroponte (Euobea) and of Lemnos in the north Aegean. Venice remained a major power in much of the region but it was anxious not to jeopardize its lucrative Ottoman trading links. The accession of Isabella | to the throne of Castile in 1474 was challenged by her step-niece, THE NUMBER OF BOOKS PUBLISHED BY CAXTON’S PRESS : Joan, wife of King Afonso V of » Portugal, in part to disrupt » Castilian claims in the exploration © of the West African coast. At its : heart was a dispute as to which : country could lay claim to the : Atlantic island groups—the Canaries, the Azores, and _ Madeira—successively colonized © by Spain and Portugal since the : early 15th century. The outcome » was the 1479 Treaty of Alcacovas, : confirming Castile’s claims to the : Canaries and Portugal's claims to : the Azores and Madeira, and » Portuguese rights in West Africa. THE SPANISH INQUISITION Founded by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1478, the goal of the Inquisition was to impose an overarching Christian Catholic identity on all Spanish territories. Tribunals were held in which heretics—which at this time meant Jews and those who had converted to Christianity from Judaism— were punished and expelled. After the fall of Granada in 1492, it was also applied to Muslims. The Inquisition was finally disbanded in 1820. Built in 1482 as Sao Jorge da Mina, Elmina Castle was one of the first Portuguese trading forts on the west coast of Africa [pow Ghana). BY ABOUT 1440, THREE SEPARATE MOSSI KINGDOMS had become established in West Africa, roughly in present-day Burkina Faso. These were Tengkodogo, Yatenga, and Wogodogo. Making use of formidable cavalry, from about 1480 they exploited the gradual decline of Mali in the face of Songhay expansion by raiding deep into Mali territories. They would remain an important presence until colonization by France some 400 years later. The year 1482 saw two crucial developments in the continuing Portuguese exploration and settlement of West Africa. The first was the construction of Sao Jorge da Mina, now called Elmina Castle, on what was later known as the Gold Coast and is today Ghana. It was a strongly fortified trading post, built on royal authority and the first permanent European settlement in sub-Saharan Africa, designed to secure a Portuguese monopoly of the West African gold trade. It proved immensely lucrative By the early 16th century, 1,500lb (680kg] of gold a year were passing through Elmina. The second development was a further series of voyages, led by Diogo Cao, southward along the West African coast. The voyages were sponsored by the new king of Portugal, John II, who came to the throne in 1481 and who committed his country to a deliberately aggressive policy of Portuguese expansion. On Cao’s first voyage, in 1482, he reached—and claimed for Portugal—the mouth of the Congo. On his second voyage, in 1484-86, he penetrated almost a farther 1,000 miles (1,600 km) south to Walvis Bay (now in Namibia], once again imperiously claiming the coast in the name of : Cao's cross : Portuguese explorer Diogo Cao | marked his discoveries of the west : coast of Africa with a series of : imposing stone crosses. : the Portuguese throne. Both : voyages were epics of tenacity, = made in the face of consistently © unfavorable winds and currents. © This was a discouraging discovery. © Where sailing conditions around - West Africa to the Gulf of Guinea were generally benign, aided by = northeast trade winds and the = Guinea Current, to the south they : were much more arduous. Cao's : achievement was impressive, but : it emphasized that if a practical | route existed to the Indian Ocean : and the East, it would be left to : later Portuguese navigators— : notably Bartolomeu Dias in : 1487—to pioneer the newroute, : deep into the South Atlantic. 1450-1749 | REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION ARCTIC OCEAN VOYAGES OF EXPLORATION Christopher Columbus's voyage across the Atlantic in 1492 sparked an } unprecedented opening-up of the world—first by the Portuguese and Pe Spanish, then by the Dutch, English, and French. By 1700, European explorers and colonizers had established themselves globally. GFFENagasaki European explorers were motivated by glory, The Spanish went west. Theirs was a more dramatic Christian zeal, and—above all—gold, spices, and discovery: an unknown world, America. By the MiMaceo Philippine Loaisa 1524 ~ slaves. The goal was the East, source of legendary 1550s, they had conquered two empires—the gee riches. With overland routes blocked by Muslim Aztecs and the Incas—and created a huge New sie - sil states, maritime routes offered the prospect of World empire. By 1522, they had also completed 4 a) outflanking them. By 1488, the Portuguese had the first circumnavigation of the globe. English and yes PACIFIC rounded southern Africa. Ten years later they French efforts were directed initially at finding a es ies 4 reached India and, by 1512, the Spice Islands. way around North America. Though futile, this paved . ey, There, they were later challenged by the Dutch. the way for two further European empires there. 5 4 870 44 1 AND MY COMPANIONS SUFFER FROM A DISEASE OF THE HEART WHICH CAN BE CURED ONLY BY GOLD. 99 Hernan Cortés, Spanish explorer, on his quest to defeat the Aztecs, 1519 od Major European voyages This map shows the date and routes taken by the first European voyages of discovery and exploration: the earliest Christopher Columbus in 1492, through to Francis Drake in 1577-80. Ships sailed for months 5 ata time to cross the vast oceans, often with crude systems for navigation. SHIPS IN 1519 1 COST AND IMPACT * SHIP aye European maritime exploration was 1: 4 3: Survival ratio [eee i : made possible by better ship types of Magellan's YAMS, AND iceth 7 circumnavigation Ships commanded by Magellan Ne / anciavigalions Buy ators note Magellan left Spain in September 1519 Five ships set sailon Magellan's a still arduous, and many ships simply with 237 men. Just 18 men made it back _cicumnavigation. Two were disappeared. The fate of Magellan's three years later. Magellan himself was wrecked, one abandoned, and one es killed in the Philippines, in April 1521. deserted. Only Victoria returned. Wists in (YZ rekdadissltenese neh, AMERICA Relations with native peoples also Sn ea proved fraught and almost invariably CHILI PEPPERS . ended violently. Europeans generally population in SAND W | saw natives as a resource to be mete exploited and Christianized. But the 2 5 startling death tolls in the New World MILLION 1 1 population in Biological exchange were more the result of the dislocation CENTRAL AMERICA MILLION iii asepnnollias of settled ways of life and of imported lISCASES —PaSSel . » 1519 peko Effect on populations between Europe and the European diseases than of deliberate 1519 The Spanish conquests New World as a direct policy. The sudden intermingling of hada devastating impact result of the voyages of previously separate worlds had a on native populations. discovery. The results Ae 5 a F ESTIMATED NATIVE POPULATION ESTIMATED NATIVE African slaves were taken were at times beneficial; dramatic impact in both directions, OF CENTRAL AMERICA POPULATION OF PERU over to replace them. at others, fatal. with crops and animal types introduced to new environments. VOYAGES OF EXPLORATION ARCTIC OCEAN - - Spitsbergen “a sle pl Jel andy —.s Pe Novaya = Fo = Zemlya ( \F Barents 1596-97 - Se RS ( S Iceland S “ys = ‘Archangel Frobisher 1978 * ENGLAND Panama oe * NETHERLANDS 7 ‘4 ~ Cabot 1497 NORTH sdioncsiZ — EUROPE = ‘ AMERICA [ ¥~" \ 1886-36 Islands \_ PORTUGAL i ( ATLANTIC OCEAN ~) Bahamas Cub ns oe Columbus 1492 ¢ Philippine 9 Goa INDIA fi Islands - a 1519-21 *Gotumbus 1807 AFRICA Ks q y Calicut } s Cape Sierra Leone SS Malacca OCEAN ; TNS SS Ven SO ad a bec INDIAN de Abreu % ee SOUTH = Ve OCEAN 1511 AMERICA : Sumairas Isla de Chiloé __, Cape of Good Hope KEY » Spanish expeditions SOUTHERN OCEAN - <> Hanieuro time > English expeditions Puerto San Julian _\ | > French expeditions Strait of Magellan. > Dutch expeditions NORTH AMERICA PACIFIC OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN ATLANTIC OCEAN ATLANTIC OCEAN AFRICA e AFRICA ‘ INDIAN OCEAN INDIAN SOUTH OCEAN AMERICA PACIFIC " PACIFIC OCEAN AUSTRALIA Obes AUSTRALIA SOUTHERN OCEAN * ewe SOUTHERN OCEAN Pa ye 1600 Spain took the lead in exploring and claiming KEY 1800 European expansion continued in the 17th KEY new lands, especially in Central and South America. —® Spain and » Denmarkand and 18th centuries, with massive areas of the Britainand = @ Spain and By 1600, Spain also had claims on the Philippine Got Laer as world claimed by Europe by 1800. Britain, in Leppard pesseeslo Ue Islands. Portugal claimed only a handful of coastal Portugaland 9 Dutch (United particular, despite losing its American colonies, France and Portugal and trading posts in Africa, India, and the Spice Islands, [eeeCb ole Provinces] was gaining ground—in Canada, in southern Rossesclons. Rosseerions: along with a strip of Brazilian coast. England and saa Aa Africa, and above all, in India. ~-@Denmarkand © The Netherlands possessions possessions and possessions Most of what remains of the Great Wall of China was rebuilt during the Ming dynasty. Dotted with fortifications it extends over 4,000 miles (6,400km). IN 1483, THE WARS OF THE ROSES flared up again (see 1454-55). Fought between Lancastrians and Yorkists—rival Plantagenet claimants to the English throne— it had appeared to have been settled for good in 1471. In 1470, the Yorkist Edward IV, who had seized the throne from the hapless Lancastrian Henry VI in 1461, had been forced from it by a group of vengeful magnates. In 1471, with Burgundian support from Charles the Bold [see 1472-76), Edward retook the throne. Henry was murdered, probably on Edward's orders. In 1483, Edward, now grossly corpulent, died. Instantly, the conflict reignited, albeit ina different form. The problem was that the new king, Edward V, was only 12 years old and his mother’s family, the Woodvilles, saw the boy-king as an obvious opportunity to proclaim themselves regents—in effect, to seize the throne themselves, undoing Edward IV's legacy. This at least was the view of the dead king's most consistent champion, his brother the Duke of Gloucester, who was competent, intelligent, and loyal. Gloucester characteristically preempted the Woodvilles by seizing the throne himself, as Richard III, executing the leading Woodvilles, and imprisoning Edward V with his younger brother inthe Towerof London where both were then H murdered. If no definitive proof H 5 . 8 - has ever been offered that Richard i a ee Peele Ill was responsible for the deaths | Richard I's much larger force, which - of his nephews, the overwhelming ! was undermined by poor leadership. | probability is that he ordered | their killings; his hold on the : throne was too shaky to permit © any rivals to survive if he could : eliminate them. Richard II] was : vilified in later Tudor propaganda. : But given the turbulent treachery | of late-medieval England, | Richard's actions seem fairly | rational. Sooner or later the : Woodvilles would have sought an : excuse for his death. Battle of Bosworth : But there was a further » Lancastrian claimant, Henry 2 Tudor (1457-1509). His right to : the throne was tenuous at best, : but critically he had the support of | the French king, Charles VIII (r. » 1483-98). In August 1485, Henry » led an invasion from France. By : the end of the month, Richard : was dead, killed at the Battle of : Bosworth, his superiority in | numbers undone by the ineptitude » of many of his commanders. | Henry Tudor, in turn, crowned on | the field of the battle, had become : Henry VII. The Tudor monarch’s : seizure of the throne might easily : have provoked yet another round _ in this destabilizing infighting. But i Henry VII would prove among the : most pragmatic, capable, and | far-sighted of kings. Under the : Tudors, England was significantly : strengthened, its magnates : comprehensively overhauled. : Gulf, reporting favorably on all these routes in 1492. The second - expedition, under Bartolomeu © Dias, was specifically charged : with finding a navigable passage : around the presumed southern tip © of Africa. In January 1488, rather » than simply following the African : coast southward as Cao and : others before him had done, at » around 27°S [several hundred miles short of the tip of south : Africa] he headed southwest, : away from the coast. By any : measure, that was remarkably : daring. Miles from land, he picked » up the westerlies that blow in the : South Atlantic and was carried : almost 300 miles (500 km] to the : east of the Cape of Good Hope onthe tip of southern Africa. ' Dias's voyage provided a better The Renaissance (literally “rebirth") grew out of the Italian Middle Ages and marked a reevaluation of European thought. At its heart was a reinterpretation of Europe's Classical past. It gave rise, first in Florence (left), to an artistic and architectural revolution, and later, toa scientific one. Its early impact was fitful but eventually spread to most of Europe in the following 200 years. FOLLOWING ON FROM EARLIER PORTUGUESE VOYAGES (see 1470-71], two further expeditions were despatched in 1487 to » understanding of the wind investigate routes to and across _°_ systems that linked the Atlantic the Indian Ocean. PérodaCovilha = and Indian oceans, and proved was charged with investigating : vital in calculating the route to the the East African coast as wellas Cape of Good Hope and beyond. the Indian Ocean. From Aden, » Later, Vasco da Gama and Pedro reached via the Red Sea, he sailed | Cabral exploited this knowledge to Calicut in India, as far south as in their own voyages. Sofala in East Africa, andnorthto : Human sacrifice is a feature the Strait of Hormuz inthe Persian | common to many early societies. plawalale 20,006 THE ESTIMATED NUMBER OF PEOPLE SACRIFICED AT THE INAUGURATION OF THE TENOCHTITLAN PYRAMID tamed, and its government i None is known to have practiced it with the vigor of the Aztecs, however—or on the same gargantuan scale. It is estimated that the Aztecs ritually sacrificed upward of 20,000 victims a year—slaves, enemies captured in battle, and people simply offered in tribute. The aim was to placate their gods, above all the god of war, Huitzilopochtil, whose daily battles with the sun could be sustained only by blood. In 1487, on the opening of the new = great temple in the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, up to 20,000 people were ritually executed, their hearts sliced from their bodies, in a single ceremony that may have lasted anything from 4 to 20 days. In China, the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) continued the ambitious rebuilding of the © 4,000-mile (6,400-km] long Great © Wall. First built in 200BcE, the wall had presented a symbol of : superiority as wellas a barrier _ to incursions from barbarians in 1 the north. Under the Ming, its | mountainous eastern length was © built mostly of brick and stone, its | western, desertlike length of clay : and earth, often reinforced with © wood. It stood on average 25ft (8m) © high and 18ft (5.5m) wide and was studded with 25,000 towers and : upward of 15,000 garrisons—a i monumental feat of construction. Tenochtitlan : This mural of the 1éth-century Aztec : capital imagined by 20th-century : Mexican artist Diego Rivera shows : the city's massive scale. to SS 2 cer? Ah ‘s Re Beare ee a Abe WP QS? aes Coe) of oe sn Pod Sao aoe! Chaba wot LPF 3 ™ Caen ‘io iF ot aod 90) we oo oe a oh at Og Hoes SS Se ar a oo PE? Sr es ee GO a gh ee RR SECC SCR eS XY oo SF go co Gok So a of as ae *! Cae aoe As Pg Ww GE AH OP oom y& on IC cS OS wr “gt ~~ 2 aes 175 This map by Alberto Cantino was the first to show Portugal's disc ‘overies in the West and East and the division between Spanish and Portuguese territories agreed upon at Tordesillas. IN 1494, POPE ALEXANDER VI drew { up the Treaty of Tordesillas, which effectively divided up existing and future New World discoveries between Spain and Portugal. It drew a north-south line 370 leagues (about 1,350 miles or 2,000 km] west of the Cape Verde Islands. Land to the west was assigned to Spain; that to the east, to Portugal. The political crisis provoked in Florence by the death of Lorenzo (“the Magnificent”) de Medici in 1492 was expoited by a Dominican monk, Girolamo Savonarola, who imposed on the citya “Christian and religious republic.” In 1494, he denounced tyrants and instituted the Bonfire of the Vanities: the destruction of idolatrous goods. He was overthrown, tortured, and executed four years later. The Italian Wars, nominally sparked by the desire of Charles VIII of France (1470-98) toasserta = claim to the kingdom of Naples, saw an intermittent 65-year struggle between France and Spain for control of Italy. Its opening salvo, which ended in 1499, was both destructive and with the Battle of Fornovo, fought LEONARDO DA VINCI (1452-1519) Born in Italy, Leonardo was a self-taught polymath—a painter, sculptor, inventor, and scientific enquirer— whose restless genius drove him to embrace a limitless range of projects, but to complete almost none. Among his masterpieces are Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. He died in France in the service of Francois |. = near Parma in July 1495, However, : having made his triumphant way to : : Naples to claim its throne, Charles inconclusive. The first phase ended = : notably Milan, had joined forces VIII found his former Italian allies, THE APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF : with Venice, the papacy, and the : Holy Roman Empire to oppose him : inaHoly League, ending his | | dreams of Italian conquest. By about 1496, an outbreak of : what was commonly called the : French pox (so-named as it was » first recorded among French | troops there] occurred in Italy. It : was syphilis. By the middle of the 16th century, about one million : people had contracted the : disease—probably from a more © virulent strain brought by sailors : returning from the New World. From about 1490, Genoese © mariner John Cabot had lobbied » Portugal and Spain to sponsor a » westward voyage to Asia across © the Atlantic, but was rebuffed. He : turned his attentions to England, : basing himselfin Bristol. An early © voyage failed, but in May 1497— : with royal backing—he set out _ again. He reached northern : Newfoundland, then sailed south © along 400 miles (650 km] of coast. | He returned to England certain » he had reached China. The : following year, he led a much larger expedition. All but one | of its five ships were lost, Cabot i with them. But his initial | success prompted five more » voyages to Newfoundland from : 1501 to 1505, which confirmed : the new discoveries were clearly : not Asian. Despite these : disappointments, the English : ventures were important in proving : the existence of a hitherto » unsuspected continent—North EUROPEANS WHO CONTRACTED SYPHILIS IN 50 YEARS FROM 1496. | America—and in staking a claim to later English primacy in its exploration and settlement. . < AS es gr ts S. eid < a gs oe ah 0 oo eo pk co ao aS ooo? he Oe APES yo? FSP? WR W™ of wo” Be OS ok? BENE GOT 08 a SF ot - So WT GE Lg ol sv er Sos we 2 Xo ae ie < £ ye ar” R xe s or es a ROS re? 5908 ro © oon OF we oer Pros se o® oe Pe he 0 FE gt NE Rn : x Med Fae +e 9? WOR ce ee! rs sf ‘S xe SS x s = 3s Bagh pe eat™ othe Per peMas™ AT OT eh SZ eae « Senne 905 POP Oe Droge OP 3S oP xe eo Ore Se? Ks gos Rie. Bor es “i gerne? ow yr & oe 177 so ve os ee a xe BOF Wg’? 20, oF oe PF" NF ooo pY oo? ® oo 00% 85 Or Kg RRS roe _\)? Pg? ne er 4 so 8 «? Wo? yo! ‘J Were ye w9F ae 9% OP ke S 5 vs 27 Sy ee or x? s ot ce?” of oe Be 46 THE TRUE WORK OF ART IS BUT A SHADOW OF THE DIVINE PERFECTION. 99 Michelangelo Buonarroti, Italian artist (1475-1564) MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI (1475-1564) was one of the defining figures of the High Renaissance [see pp.204-05). In 1505, he was invited to Rome by Pope Julius II to begin work ona monumental tomb, an association that would last for 40 years. In 1508, he began work painting a fresco on the Sistine Chapel ceiling, which he completed 4 years later. The pace of Portuguese expansion across the Indian Ocean in the early 16th century was remarkable. From 1505, the Portuguese established themselves in a string of ports along the East African coast. The goal was simple and ruthlessly pursued—the domination of the lucrative spice trade with India and East Asia. A key player in this campaign was Afonso de Albuquerque, who in 1509 became viceroy of the fledgling Portuguese colony in India. By 1510, he had secured Goa as the principal Portuguese base in India; by 1511, he had overseen the foundation of the first Portuguese settlement in Southeast Asia, Malacca. He also sponsored the first Portuguese voyage to the Spice Islands, the Moluccas, which were reached in 1512 by Francisco Serrao, who had sailed in company with Antonio de Abreu and Francisco Rodrigues. Sistine ceiling Commissioned by Pope Julius II, the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican is one of the masterworks of Michelangelo. It depicts scenes from the Old Testament. S NY = ORS a. x are x. R wae ed of wae ys ee PEK oe se eye oe ne mee eo st oe Ne oe, ‘ WP yee nh se ry Ss Os cs BE or donee wore om Ptr KP Qe” 2® $F NE S$ Fo OF I Qe eno” a yer no 08 wae pe POF ge a : oo Fon os ee Oo as oo NS Ve = ge e wee § < s E: oe 3° 4 o 4 5 2 © Oe 8 e Sa ae eo oF ask CONS se oh 82 70% ae ow AS o Ay ei" OO ho sid? gt Caero PEL gM av ty a BX eM GO eo 2 or) oF oe ® go? oe ‘ S F x sos é pe FT AT WM pte wete as SENG ep QPCo® om Fe : es 3 x er 0 ow? oo RS oe CRC hen ote a oo’ xo" = i? eae ge? 0? ow at o® = oe ye ain? ete a er ¥ oe yes \ This detail shows the coronation of Ottoman Sultan Selim |. The empire almost trebled during his nine-year reign. Depiction of the Battléof Agnadello, one of the major battles of the Italian: Wars, from the tomb of Louis XII and'Anne of Brittany, France. Where the latter two were forced to turn back in the Banda Sea, Serrao was able to continue to the : Moluccas using native craft. : However initially unpromising, it was a measure of the excitement sparked by Columbus's Atlantic crossings (see 1492) that within 20 years a variety of Spanish expeditions had explored and mapped almost the entire Caribbean. This included, in 1508-09, the Yucatan Peninsula on the east coast of Mexico, a discovery that led directly to the conquest of Mexico by Hernan Cortés [see 1519). The European conquest of the New World was driven largely by greed and effected principally by violence. It nonetheless laid claim to a Christian imperative, given papal sanction as early as 1452, by which “saracens, pagans, and any other unbelievers” could be enslaved. It was a view explosively challenged in 1511 in a sermon by a Spanish Dominican friar, @ Bangkok Saigone poate Sea Malacca Borneo INDIAN OCEAN Spice Islands exploration Portuguese explorer Francisco Serrao successfully reached the Moluccas (Spice Islands) after others had turned back. Makassar @ 22" Sumbewa 46 ARE THEY NOT MEN? : Antonio de Montesinos, in which, : to predictable outrage, he | denounced the “cruelty and : tyranny” of the settlers. Similarly aggressive Spanish i and Portuguese attempts at colonization in Morocco, where : both seized coastal strongholds in © the 15th and early 16th centuries, : partly helped the rise of anew Moroccan dynasty after 1511—the ' Sa’dis—who filled the political » vacuum created by the crumbling » of Marinid rule in the 1480s. The Venetian Republic was diplomatically isolated and i opposed by almost every major Western European power when Philippine ae Teanga.» Mindanao Bo Moluccas: New (Spice Guinea islands) Celebes € Banda Sea Flores Sea, Timor ‘Sumba KEY ~» Antonio de Abreu / Francisco Rodrigues 1512 ~» Francisco Serrao 1512 _DOTHEY NOT HAVE RATIONAL SOULS? 99 : Antonio de Montesinos, Dominican friar, delivering a sermon | to Spanish colonists, Hispaniola, December 4, 1511 Pope Julius Il established the League of Cambrai in 1508. The Republic was quickly plunged into crisis by its defeat in May 1509 by Louis XIl's French army at the Battle of Agnadello, one of the major battles of the Italian Wars (1494-1559). The following year Julius II allied himself with Venice against France, anxious that Venetian territorial designs in northern Italy had been replaced by identical French ambitions. This shuffling of alliances was typical of the period. It was given a further twist with the formation in 1511 of a new Holy League, including England, now directed against France. One outcome of this was a subsequent Franco- Venetian alliance. Hemmed in on the west by the Ottomans and threatened to the south by the Portuguese, the Safavids were nonetheless successful in confronting the loose Uzbek confederation of peoples of Central Asia to their north. In December 1510, with victory over the Uzbeks outside the city of Merv, substantial territories, including Herat, Bactria, and Kandahar, came under Safavid rule. NOLESS SIGNIFICANT than the Spanish exploration of the Caribbean in the immediate aftermath of Columbus's 1492 crossing was the discovery by Juan Ponce de Leon in April 1513 of the “island” of Florida. It was the first Spanish contact with the mainland of North America and the basis for subsequent Spanish claims to the region. In attempting to circumnavigate his island, Ponce de Leén made a further discovery almost as important in the age of sail as Columbus's discovery of the wind systems of the central Atlantic— the Gulf Stream. Niccolo Machiavelli was a diplomat in Florence when, in 1513, he wrote the first modern handbook of political science, The Prince (published in 1532). Its central theme—that the exercise of political power requires violence and deceit—earned it lasting notoriety. It offers advice about the most effective means of ruling: essentially a pragmatic determination to use all means at hand. Ottoman territorial expansion was renewed after the civil war of 1509-12 which saw Selim emerge as sultan at the expense of both his father, Bayezid II, who was forced to abdicate, and Selim's : older brother, Ahmed, who was killed in battle. Selim initiated this burst of growth—directed south and east against fellow Muslims rather than north against Christian Europe—in 1514 when the Safavids, vastly outnumbered and with no answer to the Ottoman < so" A go oh oss as » artillery, were overpowered at : the Battle of Caldiran. His Eastern : flank secured, Selim swept into Syria and Mamluk Egypt, : which instantly crumbled. Selim | not only dramatically increased Ottoman territories but, in securing almost all the | Muslim holy places of the Near East, added substantially to Ottoman prestige {see pp.230-31). Philosopher and writer, Niccolo Machiavelli was a functionary in Florence, where he witnessed the power of aggressive rulers first hand, including, in 1502-03, that of the pope's illegitimate son, the ruthless Cesare Borgia. He completed several diplomatic missions, but in 1513 was arrested and tortured. He wrote The Prince in the same year. He died aged of 58, impoverished, before his book enjoyed its later notoriety. 44 WHY DOES NOT THE POPE... BUILD... ST. PETER’S WITH HIS OWN MONEY, RATHER THAN WITH TH! MONEY... OF POOR BELIEVERS. 99 [ea Martin Luther, German priest, from 95 Theses, 1517 THE OTTOMAN CONQUESTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST under Selim I— who in 1517 also brought Algeria into the Ottoman orbit—meant that the Ottoman Turkish state was now emphatically an empire. It was also rapidly developing as a major naval power. Control of Egypt both consolidated the Ottoman presence in the eastern Mediterranean and, crucially, gave them access to the Red Sea. Already effectively masters of the overland trade routes with the East, the Ottomans were now poised to dominate the lucrative “route of spices.” In doing so, they found themselves in direct conflict with the Portuguese, who had been actively probing the Red Sea since 1513. The stage was set for another round of conflict between the Muslim world and the Christian West. In October 1517, the priest and professor of theology Martin Luther (1483-1546} nailed his 95 Theses to the door of All Saints The Reformation—the religious revolt against the Catholic Church instigated by Martin Luther (right)—tore the Western Church apart. Politics intruded from the start as the revolt spread across Europe. The consequence was a legacy of violent religious division and confrontation between Catholics and Protestants that led to a permanent divide in European Christendom. Church in Wittenberg, Saxony, as part of what was a growing protest movement against religious practices and corruption in the Catholic Church. In 1521, after being excommunicated by the pope, his opposition to the Church hardened. The ready response to Luther's teachings and the influence of the printing press [see pp.154-55) in disseminating his ideas resulted in a major force for religious change known as the Reformation The arrival of a Portuguese fleet under Tome Pires in Canton, China, in August 1517 was the climax of a campaign to open up trading routes across the Indian Ocean, begun when Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1498. However, the early results of these encounters were not promising, as the Chinese regarded the newcomers as uncouth barbarians. A Portuguese trade mission to Peking in 1520 was treated with similar scorn. e oa ros Or KL ae ee & ye oe ey BF oe! we “or ge ro sk s on 3 2. ei sf P79 BOP Ad" o™ ba Sacer ot pee sok FoF ow ot Ve oe =o pros © he oF = 9 oe ae ws x Au LS Br | Aces oe as & ef aw ad Bsr? 9 Be ox rd OWA xe? ORC b J OG ss ne" oo ROS SS) BY oo if ws SS Ls RS we ze of Hungary in 1529, the Ottomans | feared the Habsburgs would try to recapture the lost territories and so laid siege to Vienna. It proved : too ambitious a task even for the = formidable Ottoman army, for the weather proved as arduous a foe : as the Austrians. A second attempt : on the city in 1532 also failed. After his victory at Panipat in i 1526, Babur consolidated his hold over north India the following year, defeating a Rajput army under Rana Sanga at the Battle of Khanwa. The final establishment of Mughal power came in 1529 : with the destruction of an Afghan : army at Ghagra. In 1531, the Schmalkadic » League was formed. This was a i military alliance, made originally : between the Lutheran rulers of Siege of Vienna The Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1529 failed because of the bad weather— bitter autumn rains and early snow —and over-extended supply lines. SULEIMAN 1 (1494-1566) The 46-year rule of Suleiman was marked by a succession of victories in the Balkans, the Middle East, and North Africa that left the Ottomans as the most dynamic and dominant presence in the Western Hemisphere. He is known as “Suleiman the Magnificent” in the West and as Kanuri, “The Lawgiver,” in the Islamic world, and his reign saw a flowering of Ottoman art and culture. Hesse and Saxony in northern Germany, under which each promised to aid the other if Charles V attempted, by force, to reimpose Catholicism. It rapidly _ expanded to include other German Protestant states and gained the : support of Charles's external enemies, the Ottomans and France. It was also an opportunity for each territory to enrich itself by taking over church property. Sy o SS) A gt ge x ee a ; ot es oh weet ee ie So hp Me™ gc ee? oe Para Oh oe oe? er pe aS rho x op ae oo x0 . SO ON WO? OS ot “A <) oe “Pr OP og cB 4 7" ne RX. < XO? Ae Ay 32 ee? gh! We ef Se we sh oy Fo 05 ode Oey mse Sh pene? ao™ er eeu 9 co ce pon? ps orga Se se od ne’ Ph cor ye 4e 9 HP oer se oF og? OM ay oF or oF al Or" ce ws er Oh 128" ne “ yee 8 SP e" 5 eo cS ee zi Sa O30 av" xP od? we ego we Bes AN: of oe & Wh ae \ I 02 AO 0! oF " wee oY ae > %) eo OS WPF ne Sy Wek ES a or go wrod = oe Or o® rch a ee ia “ ie ox S ” ce od OF oF ae sa) so oe? o® x Claes CN Pe DEP <) ar oe ee areca << sus Rae) 3 Ro oe a? ot aan © 3 pF os ‘ oe oF oc a oY hr oF SST gre Pr oS ok ee SS SPO oo? Ca g 3 as Ss es ore orn S RE ane pg Ocoee sé Eee get o™ pe cre 28 oe Wo RN nt 2 Bigscrge P05 00 ae we AOS Pros™ yo" we ONO > oe, OO poe oO reo’ Ra Pe Ps oe is wee oi eee oP wos ia stro y es f Atahualpa, the last Inca emperor, leads his army at Caxamalca. SPANISH EXPLORATION AND CONQUEST IN THE NEW WORLD, so decisively reinforced by the subjection of Mexico in 1521, was continued on an even more spectacular scale with the takeover of the Peruvian Inca Empire by Francisco Pizarro (1476-1541) in 1532. In little more than a year, a force of 188 Spaniards defeated a highly organized state of five million. Like Cortés’s invasion of Mexico, its success depended on internal divisions within the Inca Empire, and a combination of religious zeal, greed, and superior military means—steel, guns, and armor against the Incas’ weapons of sharpened stones and padded cotton armour—the whole driven by Pizarro, a man of huge ambition. On the other side of the continent, further European penetration of South America was also taking place, albeit on a far smaller scale. In 1532, Portugal established its first permanent settlement in Brazil, at Sao Vicente. This was the nucleus of what by the end of the century would be a huge colonial enterprise based on slavery and sugar plantations. In 1532, hostilities between Germany's Schmalkaldic League and Emperor Charles V ceased with the signing of a treaty at Nuremberg. The concessions made to the Protestants by Charles, which, most importantly, included freedom of worship, were welcomed by Martin Luther and enabled German Protestants to spread throughout the country in the following decade. WP) 66. THE SCANDAL AY OF CHRISTENDOM AND Kat, A DISGRACE TO YOU. 99 sy 4, Catherine of Aragon to Henry VIII about Anne Boleyn, 1533 HENRY VIII OF ENGLAND had been awarded the title Fidei Defensor— Defender of the Faith—by Pope Leo X in 1521 in recognition of his vehement defense of the Catholic Church against Protestant attacks. Henry would remain a devout Catholic to the end of his life, opposed to all attempts to reform Catholic practice. And yet by 1533 he had been excommunicated from the Roman Church. The following year, he completed the rupture, establishing a national church, totally independent from Rome, with himself as its “supreme head.” The reasons for this improbable split were simple. Initially, Henry wanted a divorce from his aging Spanish wife, Catherine of Aragon, who after 24 years of marriage had yet to give birth to ason. Henry had Anne Boleyn Henry VIll married Anne Boleyn in secret in January 1533, four months before he divorced Catherine of Aragon. She was crowned in June. Charles V's seizure of Tunis in June 1935 was almost the only j of his reign. Briefly, the prospect of a resurgent Christendom loomed. The initial Catholic response to the Reformation was hesitant and uncoordinated, and was led by a series of individuals rather than the Church itself. The Jesuits, the Society of Jesus, were established in 1534 by a Basque nobleman, Ignatius of Loyola. Loyola’s goal was to produce a new generation of highly educated priests to spread a new militantly Catholic faith. Given papal sanction in 1540, the Jesuits spearheaded the Catholic revival. convinced himself this was divine punishment for marrying his brother's widow—in 1501, Catherine had married Henry's i elder brother Arthur, who died : the following year; Henry and : Catherine married in 1509. The pope, under pressure from : Catherine’s nephew, Charles V, : refused to grant a divorce. Henry's : response, formulated over several years, was in effect to become his own pope, able to authorize his © own divorce. Prompted in addition by the knowledge that, as elsewhere in Europe, any ruler asserting control of the Church in his own country would necessarily increase his own authority, in 1534 the Church of England was brought into being under the Act of Supremacy. In pursuit of Henry's : personal interests, Roman Catholicism was abolished. HAVING BROKEN WITH ROME, it followed that all the structures of the Catholic Church in England should be taken over by the state. This was not just a question of wanting to eradicate papal authority in England. The Catholic Church in England was immensely wealthy, and this was money that Henry VIII, permanently strapped for cash, was determined to have. In 1535, the king’s secretary, Thomas Cromwell (c. 1485- 1540}, took charge of the two-part dissolution of the country’s monasteries. Starting in 1536 and culminating with all the great monasteries in 1539, the dissolution involved systematic vandalism and saw the greatest transfer of land ownership in England since the Norman Conquest in 1066. Every one of the 560 monasteries in England was suppressed, yielding the crown an additional income of around £200,000 per annum. However, within years the money was gone, squandered by the king. Henry VIII's divorce from Catherine of Aragon in 1533 had been necessary to allow him to marry Anne Boleyn. When she, too, failed to produce a son, Henry : had her executed on charges of adultery in 1536. In the same year, tensions at the pace and extent of religious change, and the sincere concerns of many that the break with Rome signaled larger changes in the fabric of the traditional Church, had reached the boiling point in the North of England. The Pilgrimage of Grace saw the largest uprisings in England since the Peasants shown little or no dissatisfaction with the Catholic church and were unprepared to see centuries of protest on this scale, the king 58% of eligible monasteries dissolved Dissolution of monasteries Under the Dissolution of Lesser Monasteries Act of 1536, 243 of the 419 eligible monasteries were suppressed or dissolved. eid A unequivocal success 1,175 people burned PORTUGUESE INQUISITION 646 effigies burned : Portuguese Inquisition Between 1540 and 1794, tribunals : held in Lisbon, Porto, Coimbra, and : Evora led to the death by burning of : 1,175 people, most of them Jews. : conceded to the movement's demands. But when the crisis i was over, he had the rebellion’s : leaders executed. Revolt in 1381. Those involved had = Distracted by events in Europe, Charles V was rarely able to : pursue his goal of driving the : Ottomans back to their Turkish settled faith discarded. Faced with = heartlands. In 1535, however, he : achieved a rare success with the conquest of Tunis in North Africa. It proved to be a costly victory, : provoking an Ottoman raid on : Majorca that captured 6,000 : Christians and encouraged the French monarch to cooperate : more closely with the Ottomans. While it never achieved the » notoriety of its Spanish equivalent | (see 1480), the Portuguese | Inquisition, founded in 1536, was | nonetheless vigorous in rooting : out heresy in Portugal and, from : 1560, in its colonies, such as Goa. : Its chief target was Jews, many originally Spanish, who were : forcibly converted to Catholicism. This illustration from the Vallard Atlas of 1547 depicts Jacques Cartier and members of the abortive French-Canadian colony of 1541-42. 464 TAMINC BELIEVE THAT THIS IS THE LAND GAVE TO CAIN. 99 LINED TO : suppression of the revolt and the i city’s notables were forced to | parade barefoot. The underlying GOD Jacques Cartier, French explorer, about Canada, 1536 THE BATTLE OF PREVEZA, fought off western Greece in September 1538, further underlined the reach : of Ottoman naval power. It pitched the Ottomans against a combined Papal, Venetian, Genoese, and Spanish fleet brought together by Pope Paul Ill. The Ottoman victory highlighted the difficulty the Christians faced in welding together disparate, uneasily allied forces. tension, however, remained. Despite concerted efforts, the Spanish exploration of North : America in the 16th century i proved discouraging. The myths | that drove it—a waterway linking : the Atlantic and Pacific, the “Seven Cities of Gold”—proved to : be just that. The reality was vast : In August 1539, Ghent, the : birthplace of Charles V, rose in revolt against him. The issue was = tax, demanded by Charles to | finance his Italian wars. It revealed = the difficulties faced by Charles V in imposing authority over » autonomous cities determined to guard their “liberties” by : refusing to pay a distant ruler for : an equally distant campaign. : Charles personally oversaw the | territories that proved hostile and : unrewarding. Nonetheless, from 1539, Hernando de Soto leda : four-year expedition across much of the southern territories of : today’s US. Similarly, in 1540-42, : Francisco Vazquez de Coronado : headed a still larger force north : from Mexico, penetrating as far _ as Kansas. And in 1542-43, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo led a fleet : north along the unknown Pacific coast, discovering San Diego harbor. But none of these ventures would be followed up until the end of the century. French attempts at settlement in North America, promoted in part Battle of Préveza Despite the size of the Christian fleet at the Battle of Préveza in September 1538, it proved no match for the Ottoman fleet led by Khair ed-Din by nervousness of being beaten to it by Spain (just as Spain was anxious not to be outflanked by France], proved no more fruitful Initial efforts had been made in 1534 and then in 1535-36 by Jacques Cartier (1491-1557), in the course of which the Gulf of St. Lawrence and then the St. Lawrence River in present-day Canada were reached and claimed for France. In 1541, by now thoroughly alarmed by Spanish intentions, France launched a more substantial expedition to Canada with the explicit goal of establishing a permanent settlement. It was led by Jean-Francois de la Rocque de Roberval, with Cartier his deputy, and was a dismal failure. Cartier returned, unauthorized, to France in 1542 with “gold and diamonds” that proved worthless. Roberval abandoned the colony the following year after a winter of near starvation. French efforts in North America would not be renewed for half a century. A consequence of the Catholic response to the Reformation was the missionary work undertaken : between 1541 and 1552 by Francis | Xavier (1506-52), a cofounder of the Jesuits in 1534. Conceived ona heroic scale, its aim was to spread Christianity to East Asia. Xavier traveled via Mozambique to Goa, then to the Spice Islands between 1545 and 1547, and then to Canton and Japan before returning to China, where he died in 1552. His Christian conversions are said to have been exceeded (Barbarossa). only by St. Paul. R Ce it? ce! 2 Be! ot ye NS S ss rs % os se rt RS oe cS Ca aro ee For or oe Oe Comers »» wero’ os Be os ye poZ or 9" Pros J \) oe sé oF oe oo one y s oo Pig? oe Ree ie soos Oe oo WHY NT go ot 80 ey Se yt of oO ahr grew’ oie a oe Oe gt ote o™ Se «ange Os Fe oo) BPS eh Hh ge Fe PP ek? 9 © Foe gO? 96 FS OA oP oh cl Pig ae’ CORN y 1 wer or ek os pga Hehe ( hee ( oe eS KS i SKS oe oe a nee o BN ao o SS) ye ee w oe S we os so See) xe & °¥ es Po" i f ES fe 3 SY oe of lof > oa ® os oS ory" Rg ve oh aS pods o Os oe os < eh ot rs ¥ S e708 srr eM ye! we e Roe: ote 2 FI ged? alt se rote Re) Peso wr rtice s . R KS i ERC aS Pr er ese oe oe ah eo % x xe 6 i ak ot se we oe os tat oto 3° 204 woh so? Qc cS et xe v ps ys om RS a) io° ow Rae or . ov es" drs we ee) se Pg wor 9 oo ec? w oe oe oot? xe & ee THE FIRST CONTACT BETWEEN EUROPE AND JAPAN WAS IN 1543. According to the Portuguese writer and explorer Fernao Mendes Pinto, it occurred on the island of Tanegashima, to the south of the main Japanese archipelago, Not only did the Portuguese introduce firearms to Japan, but they became intermediaries between China and Japan, whose merchants had been forbidden to trade with the Chinese as a result of persistent raids by Japanese pirates. In 1543, the Polish mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) published On the Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies. It was based not on Copernicus’s own observations of the heavens so much as on those of Greek and Arab astronomers. Nonetheless, he was able to demonstrate that these much older observations were more readily explained by the Earth orbiting the Sun rather Copernicus’s Universe This painting by Andreas Cellarius from 1660 shows “The system of the entire created Universe according to Copernicus.” A " ah” co we ee serge Pecos PAD _ gs of er an” yp? oe Bog a MOP CES ote Ceca est ed 0% K Joes es ue OP ok ses AP yoo oe, BSCS) ae y*® «Fe? eS ok “95 a 9% 8 Org co ge™ oo’ OP Ve oP ok ew oa PF ash _ goo” oe eS Ah 08 a eo ean de ao oo" eg 204 tons of gold Gold and silver shipped to Seville The silver mountain at Potosi meant it dominated the exports of precious metals shipped to Spain from Chile and Mexico from 1503 to 1660. than the other way around. It took others, notably the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe in the 1570s, to show by direct observation that Copernicus was right. But a major breach in the geocentric universe theory had been made. Also published in 1543 was Vesalius’s On the Fabric of the Human Body. Like Copernicus, Andreas Vesalius (1514-64) looked to ancient Greek learning. Unlike Copernicus, he made his own direct observations, based on dissections of human bodies. If any moment can be pinpointed as initiating a scientific revolution in the West—the belief the world is best understood by empirical observation—it was perhaps this. Ever since the formation of the Protestant Schmalkaldic League in 1531, Charles V had been forced to skirt its threat to his authority as Natives and llamas were pressed into service to transport silver from Potosi, Bolivia. The sprawling shanty town became the largest in the New World. : Holy Roman Emperor. Persistently Ottomans, he had had little option © of Miihlberg in April 1547, was : consequences were mixed. : Italian Alps, the Catholic Church ' The Portuguese arrive in Japan distracted by the French and the but to appease the league [see 1532) and only in 1546, with France temporarily sidelined after the Treaty of Crépy of 1544, did he feel able to confront it directly. The result, decided at the Battle an overwhelming military success for Charles. The longer-term In 1545, Spanish colonists discovered at Potosi, in present- day Bolivia, the biggest single concentration of silver ever found —in effect, an entire mountain of silver. Together with silver found in northern Mexico, it would prove to be the motor of the cash-hungry Spanish Empire, for itwas New World silver from Potosi that drove Spanish trade with China just as it financed Spain’s attempts at European dominance. In the same year, at Trent in the set out to challenge the Protestant Reformation by reforming and remodeling itself. The Council of Trent aimed to eradicate corruption, make the Church's teachings more coherent, and to project itself as a dynamic and competitive religious force. It gave rise to a series of new Catholic orders and met twice more, in 1551-52 and 1559-63. 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Edward VI, guided by the actively Protestant Lord Book of Common Prayer The Book of Common Prayer made English the language of the English Church for the first time. It also provoked bitter protests and uprisings. Protector, the Duke of Somerset, acting head of the government, and Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556), the Archbishop of Canterbury, introduced a new, vehemently Protestant church, given legal force in 1549 by the Act of Uniformity. Many of the outward forms of Catholic worship, including bell-ringing, were forbidden. It was reinforced by the publication of Cranmer’s Book of Common Prayer—its use was compulsory. When the first Portuguese : Governor-General, Tomé de | Sousa, arrived in Brazilin 1549 he : was accompanied by five Jesuits, : sent at the express wish of the Portuguese king, Joao III, and led by Manuel de Nobrega (1517-70). The Jesuits (see 1533-34), in : other words, were central to the : Portuguese colonization of Brazil © from the beginning. Nobrega not : only celebrated the first mass in Brazil, at Salvador, first capital of the new colony, he established the first Jesuit College in the New © World. He and his companions | proved energetic missionaries, establishing schools and chapels and, importantly, concentrating their efforts among the natives’ children. He was a consistent champion of the Indians in the face of routine brutality by the Portuguese colonizers. Throughout the 16th century, the North African coast was one | of the key battlegrounds between i the Christian West, chiefly Spain, and the Ottomans for control of the Mediterranean. Spain needed to eradicate the devastating raids by Barbary pirates—actively encouraged by the Ottomans—that | permanently threatened to disrupt - Habsburg communications with its Italian lands. The fall of Tripoli to the Ottomans in 1551, with some assistance from French ships, was a striking blow to Habsburg strategic hopes, just as it marked a significant victory for | the Turks. The city withstood repeated efforts to retake it. The only surviving child of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, Mary | was the first queen of England to rule in her own right. IN 1552, THE LAST CHAPTER of the 60-plus years of the Italian Wars {see 1505-12] was opened. It saw France allied with the Ottomans in the Mediterranean, and with a series of German Protestant princes, notably Maurice of Saxony, in Germany. England would make a late and disastrous contribution to the Spanish cause in 1557. This came about because Henry VIII's daughter, Mary, became queen in 1553 and married Charles V's son, the future Philip Il of Spain, in 1554. That the ruler of an England that had been Protestant since 1534 should be married to the son of the most militantly Catholic ruler in Europe is easily explained. Where her brother, Edward VI, had been aggressively Protestant [see 1549-51), Mary | was no less aggressively Catholic, determined on the full restoration of Catholic —and papal—supremacy. In the Burned at the stake Michael Servetus died in Geneva, a copy of his book chained to his leg, uttering the words: “Jesus, Son of the Eternal God, have mercy on me.” Heretics put to death S @ © \ in i \ . I ‘ During her five-year 4:1 s rule, Mary | had 283 Protestants burned at the stake for heresy—227 of them were men and 56 were women. space of less than a year, England was wrenched from one religious extreme to another. From 1555, she began the systematic persecution of leading Protestant figures, 283 of whom she had burned alive —hence her later demonization as Bloody Mary. The execution in Geneva in October 1553 of the Spanish theologian and radical humanist, Michael Servetus, burned at the stake at the express command of the French religious reformer John Calvin (1509-64), marked acritical moment in the Reformation (see 1516-18). Servetus was a keen exponent, guilty in Calvin's view of “execrable blasphemies” because he rejected Calvin's belief in predestination— that all events are “willed by God,” with eternal salvation available only to those who submit to God's will (largely as defined by Calvin). What was significant about the death of Servetus was that for the first time Protestantism was seen to be as intolerant of heresy as Catholicism. The implications were bleakly ominous. Ps, This copper engraving depicts the Peace of Augsburg of 1555. THE FINAL PHASE OF THE ITALIAN WARS made plain that Charles V could never impose himself militarily on those of his nominal subjects within the Holy Roman Empire who had embraced Protestantism. Charles accordingly, and reluctantly, allowed his brother Archduke Ferdinand, Holy Roman Emperor designate, to negotiate a compromise, the Peace of Augsburg, agreed in September 1555. At its heart was a formula—culus regio eius religio (“whose realm, his religion”]— that allowed each ruler to impose his own religion on his territory. Tolerance of this sort suggested a major breakthrough. But the choice was between Catholicism and Lutheranism only—Calvinism (see 1552-54) was not included. The accession of the 14-year-old Akbar to the Mughal throne in 1556 marked a decisive moment in the dynasty’s fortunes. His father, Humayun, had seen a substantial erosion of Mughal power in the face of Afghan and Hindu advances. Having fought off a determined Hindu attempt on his throne at the Second Battle of Panipat in November 1556, Akbar presided over an enormous expansion of Mughal power. The claims of Russia’s czars to be the sole legitimate heirs of Rome and, therefore, the only guardians of Christianity led naturally to a belief that the expansion of Russia by conquest was not just desirable but inevitable. Under Ivan IV, known as “the Terrible” (1530-84), such ambitious assertions were significantly boosted. Although his efforts in the west were thwarted by Lithuanian arms, those to the south were strikingly successful. He had already conquered the Khanate of Kazan in 1552. In 1556, he achieved an even more notable breakthrough, destroying the enfeebled Khanate of Astrakhan. Akbar the Great in procession During the 46-year reign of Akbar, Mughal India enjoyed expansion of territory, prosperity, religious tolerance, and cultural richness. : Russia now found itself not only in control of the trade routes to Central Asia, it was also poised to sweep eastward across Siberia. This oil painting shows Henri II of France and Philip Il of Spain meeting at Cateau-Cambrésis on April 3, 1559 to sign the peace treaty. In reality, it was signed by their ambassadors. THE TENSE RELATIONS BETWEEN the Portuguese, who had been attempting to establish trading posts in China since 1513, and the Chinese, always suspicious of Portuguese intentions, had thawed during the 1540s to the point that by 1552 China agreed to allow Portugal a trading post in Macau on the south coast of China. It was the key foothold the Portuguese had been seeking. By 1557, this temporary settlement had become permanent. It would, in turn, prove a crucial link in the Portuguese, later Spanish, global trading system. Macau remained Portuguese until 1999. In 1557, Mary | of England (see 1552-54) was persuaded by her husband Philip II to join Spain in its renewed war with France. This proved disastrous, leading directly to the loss of Calais tothe French in January 1558; Calais had been English since 1360 and was the country's last foothold in continental Europe. Mary had been unable to have children and when she died in November 1558, she was succeeded by her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth |, the daughter of Anne Boleyn. Capture of Calais This enamel plaque by French artist Leonard Limosin celebrates the capture of Calais by French forces led by Francis, Duke of Guise on January 7, 1558. KEY Territory of Moscow 1300-1505 Expansion of Barents Sea Moscow 1505-1584 yw eS 2 fe x = @ Arkhangelsk 3 S a ; o@ 2 Expansion of < ae or ESTONIA 2 Moscow cf Riga @Pskov Nizhny & In 1547, Ivan IV Bat “LATVIA Moscowg eykarazn @ SIBERIA transformed the LITHUANIA @ OR Grand Duchy of Smolensk Samara Moscow into the (DA) Saratov Czardom of Russia. one ce Medals saritsyn In the 1550s, he Aral ‘ @Rostov Sea began the expansion HUNGARY @Astrakhan of its boundaries, g and its territory and Black Sea population doubled ‘Constantinople during his reign. The Treaty of Cateau- predictable consequence was the Cambrésis of April 1559 marked the definitive end of the Italian Wars. It proved a short-lived success. Habsburg Spain was the clear victor, its dominance in Italy absolute (at the expense of the papacy as much as of France]. For : its part, France kept Calais as well i as Metz, Toul, and Verdun. By the terms of the treaty, Philip II was tacitly making plain that the military and financial contributions of the Netherlands to the conflict had been principally to advance Spain’s Italian goals. Future conflict in the Spanish Netherlands was more or less guaranteed. A less death of the French king, Henry © IIb. 1519) three months later ina : tournament held to celebrate the : treaty. The succession of boy-kings : that followed led France to 40 : years of bitter civil war (see 1572). In 1558, Czar Ivan IV continued his policy of Russian expansion with the beginning of the : settlement of the Khanate of Sibir : (western Siberia]. Ivan’s conquest of Kazan in 1552 had opened up the way to the Urals and Siberia : to the east. Colonization was led by rich merchants, such as the | Stroganovs, who had been : granted estates and tax privileges : by Ivan in the lands they took. Protected by Cossacks, large- : scale migration into Siberia followed in the 1570s, establishing » trade links with local tribes. The Khanate of Sibir was eventually : conquered in 1582, greatly : increasing the size of Russia. \y Ms S$ go? on S Noe S a ow oS go 2 Foe se" Oo? X Rs ‘ae \ a) o AS ee xe os ~S x ~ ie eS x ys es a5 wat KS oe aes We? 0" ¥ oe Sey Or EV Pr 9S? G20 SP? 00 od Ce is O FP or) Soe PTS _ ea Co" So eee > och NP ge 2) HP ok! se € we 6 LET on ov PF Ot oy RSE erS CHP Ge™ ie) se = yr s" cS pe oe oo” x aoe wr ee pric eos « C The Northern Rising of » November 1569 was the most serious threat to Elizabeth I's pragmatic Protestantism. Led by the Catholic earls of Westmorland and Northumberland, it swept across northern England before ' being savagely repressed. | In 1569, the Flemish cartographer | Gerardus Mercator (1512-94) devised a world map that for the © first time showed the true compass bearing of every landmass. 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ENGLAND'S INTERVENTION IN THE DUTCH REVOLT (see 1572-73) was characterized by the Battle of Zutphen in September 1586—it was a comprehensive defeat of the combined Anglo-Dutch forces by the Spanish. Elizabeth I had better luck with her attempts to destabilize Spain. In a series of plundering voyages to the Caribbean, Drake had highlighted how Spain's lucrative New World trade could be disrupted. In April 1587, Elizabeth despatched him on a mission to Spain with a goal of further raiding and destruction. Characteristically, she almost immediately changed her mind, but her message recalling Drake never reached him. It was a spectacular success—Spanish and Portuguese vessels and ports were attacked with audacious 30 4,500 casualties 25 6,000 a casualties ARMY (IN THOUSANDS) a 10 5 0 Anglo-Dutch Spanish army army Battle of Zutphen The Anglo-Dutch forces suffered huge losses in the Battle of Zutphen in 1586, which resulted in the city being handed over to the Spanish. abandon. The highlight was a : three-day assault on Cadiz in southern Spain, in which 23 : Spanish ships were sunk © [according to Spanish sources; Drake claimed 33) and four were captured. The raid delayed Philip © II's Armada by over a year. Plots and rebellions plagued : Elizabeth's reign and she had her : Catholic cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots, executed in 1587 as a dangerous claimant to her throne. Christianity in Japan thrived when first introduced by the Portuguese in the mid-16th : century. By about 1580, there were an estimated 130,000 Japanese Christians, most in and around Nagasaki. For Toyotomi Hideyoshi [see 1582-85) they represented an organized and armed force around which | opposition to him could be rallied. A prime motive for the conversion of many warlords had been that it : would make it easier for them to obtain gunpowder, since its trade was still largely controlled by the Portuguese. At the same time, Hideyoshi was anxious not to | jeopardize the trading links the Portuguese had established. His response was typically hardheaded—trade was still to be encouraged but Christianity would be banned. In July 1587, : a Purge Directive Order to the : Jesuits was issued. In addition, | Nagasaki was brought under his : direct rule. Though the Order was not fully enforced for a decade or more, Christianity : in Japan would in future be forced underground. 44 | HAVE THE BODY BUT OF A WEAK AND ‘ FEEBLE WOMAN, BUT I HAVE THE HEART * AND STOMACH OF A KING... 99 Elizabeth I, Queen of England, addressing the troops at Tilbury, August 19, 1588 THE SPANISH ARMADA was Philip II's most obvious military gamble—a massive deployment of Spanish naval might meant first to overthrow England, then to crush the Protestant provinces of the Netherlands. It failed entirely. It showed how outright military success was elusive, and that logistical difficulties confronted any long-range military operation. Launched on May 30, 1588, the Armada was the victim of English seamanship, of lengthening lines of supply, and of the weather—the gale-wracked Spanish fleet was forced home in disarray. Spanish hopes of exterminating Protestant heresies were decisively checked. Spanish Armada Severe storms and the English fleet caused heavy losses to the Armada, which numbered around 150 ships when it left Lisbon. ELIZABETH I (1533-1603) Elizabeth faced many problems on her accession to the English throne in 1558— religious division, economic hardship, and threats from Scotland, France, and Spain. She overcame them with a combination of guile and intelligence and presided over a reinvention of England as a defiantly self-confident Protestant nation. The death in 1589 of Henry III of France, stabbed by a Dominican monk, brought Henry of Navarre (1533-1610) to the throne and plunged France into crisis. Henry IV's claims to the crown were clear, yet he was a Protestant. To the powerful Catholic League : of France, and to Philip Il in Spain, i the prospect of a Protestant © king of France was unthinkable. : Henry IV's eventual acclamation : as king came only in 1593, after : aseries of debilitating wars, : when he—conveniently— » converted to Catholicism. elbow protector Dastana forearm guard Date unknown Forearm guards [dastanas] were worn by Mughal warriors to shield limbs from glancing blows. The hinged plate also protected the inner arm surface. Iron mace 18th century Solid weapons, like this mace, could crush enemy skulls, even through plate armor, and were used by Mughal foot soldiers. For over two centuries (1526- dominated most of India. Through military might , inistrati ,they integrated Hindus a . and administrative prowess and Muslims into a rich culture of imperial splendor. a With their roots in Mongol and Turkish cultures, seven generations of ™~ ail Mughal kings, beginning with Babur (r. sliding bar for nose protection stylized blade Battle-ax 17th century elaborate Mughal ideals of beauty extended even to tip weapons, such as this ornate but formidable cavalryman's ax from India’s Deccan region. 1761), Mughal rulers antelope features carved in ivory 1526-30), blended Persian and Islamic Ivory priming powder horn military and artistic influences into India’s indigenous Hindu culture. The Date unknown result was one of the most impressive (1556-1707), commanded vast wealth, assimilated Hindus into its ruling elite, medieval empires, which, at its height Wvory carving had an ancient history in India, and it became equally revered in Mughal courts. This powder horn, expanded education, and provided patronage in the arts and literature. used on hunts, has an antelope shape. Early silk embroidery » Satin hunting jacket The sport of kings required beautifully adorned clothing— this coat is lavishly embroidered with typically Hunt painting 17th century Hunting and horsemanship were favorite pastimes of Mughal rulers, who created huge hunting parks. A prince is seen here on horseback with a servant and hound. -— in chain stitches fleeing antelope i servant seco with hound hunted 17th century Persian floral patterns. Metal turban helmet Spiked parrying shield Date unknown 18th century The warriors of early Mughal armies With its five spikes and central plate, this wore lightweight but effective turban Mughal device served as an elaborate and helmets with nose and neck guards dangerously impressive weapon, as well to deflect enemy arrows and blades. as vital protection for its bearer. with battle spikes each blade is 7in (17.7.cm] long central __/“ plate Mughal miniature Date unknown Arts and architecture flourished under the patronage of Mughal kings such as Akbar (r, 1542-1605). Miniature painting, introduced as manuscript illustration, was most prized. Sarpech Date unknown The extraordinary wealth of the Mughals was evident in their love of jeweled objects. This sarpech, made of gold, emeralds, diamonds, rubies, and a pearl, adorned a royal turban. large ruby at center __~ \ \ solid jade pestle spike can be used as weapon Mortar and pestle 17th century Jade could only be worked using diamond dust, so it was highly prized in Mughal society. This mortar and pestle was carved from one block. Mughal court painting 17th century The splendor of the Mughal court is clear from this painting of the emperor Jahan (r, 1628-58) among his nobles, grouped in strict hierarchical order around the throne Jahan, fifth Mughal emperor | Hansli necklace 18th century Cast in gold and heavily encrusted with precious stones, this rigid torque or necklace was known as a hansli, because it was designed to rest on the wearer's collarbone—or hansli in Urdu. floral pattern shows through Bowl inlaid with jade 18th century Parchin kari, or inlay, reached its peak during the reign of Jahan (1628-58). This bowl is inlaid with jade and precious stones. Enameled gold wine goblet 17th century Records of Mughal courtly life describe kings sipping their wine from enameled gold or silver goblets, and dozens of dishes served on gold and silver plates. engraving of a dancing girl bowl for holding tobacco . water jar or bowl Hookahs 18th century The Mughals brought the Persian tradition of hookah-smoking to India. Both men and women used hookahs, in which tobacco smoke is cooled with water. enameled floral motif —__ silver incised hookah bowl MUGHAL EMPIRE Talisman Date unknown Mughal craftsmen were famed for the intricacy of their work. This talisman, or tabeez, is decorated with verses from the Qur’an. A eee ee 1 = An estimated 40,001 |-50,000 people died in Paris in 1590 until the Spanish army led by the Duke of Parma broke the four-month siege in September. BY 1590, TOYOTOMI HIDEYOSHI (see 1582-87) had effectively completed the unification of Japan, and the distinctive character of the regime that was to dominate the country for over 250 years was established. Though it was not the capital, from 1590 Hideyoshi based himself at Edo, where the feudal nobility, now entirely subservient to him, year. It proved a highly effective elaborate social structure was who had to pay heavy taxes. Attempting to impose himself on France as king, Henry of Navarre (see 1588-89] besieged Paris in May 1590. The siege was broken in September by Spanish troops under the Duke of Parma. 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Polish forces were unable to attempt a lifting of the siege for almost a year. Their ultimate defeat of the Russians in 1634, however, was absolute. Sweden's success of the previous year in the Thirty Years’ War continued with a defeat of 30 6,000 6,800 Bw 2s casualties casualties a z = a 3 =} = iS = wo uy o 4 So ira Swedish Imperial army army Battle of Liitzen Similar-sized forces suffered similar casualties at the Battle of Ltitzen. Critically, though, the Swedes lost their leader, Gustavus Adolphus. the Imperial armies in April 1632 : at the Battle of Rain, in Bavaria. A minor triumph in November at the : Battle of Liitzen, near Leipzig, | might then have confirmed + Swedish territorial ambitions in : Germany had King Gustavus : Adolphus not been killed in the : battle. Ata stroke, the impetus : went out of the Protestant © campaign. Habsburg supremacy seemed to have been assured. In 1633, Italian astronomer » Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was called before the Roman © Inquisition of the Catholic Church. His crime was to support : the heliocentric view of the Solar System that placed the Sun, and not the Earth, at its center. He was found guilty of heresy, forced to © recant, and spent the rest of his : life under house arrest. Under Japan's Tokugawa : shogunate, a policy of kaikin (“sea » restriction”) was declared in 1633. : Contact with the outside world was Strictly controlled, although © trade with Korea and China was : allowed, and the Dutch kept a © trading post. The idea was to | prevent possible territorial incursions into Japan. It remained © official policy until 1853. Pachelbel House, at Eger, Bohemia. He was awoken and killed by his own men. THE DEFEAT AT LUTZEN WAS one of the last times that Albrecht Wallenstein (1583-1634) led an Imperial army. Although generally successful, he was distrusted by almost everyone and was believed to be negotiating a separate peace. He was charged with treason by Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II, but in February 1634 he was murdered by some of his own officers, with the tacit approval of Ferdinand. Yet, with the Swedes having failed to follow up their victory at Litzen, the initiative returned to the Imperial Battle of Nordlingen Fought in southern Germany, this battle resulted in a crushing victory for the Habsburgs—but it was not a conclusive end to the war. forces, who crushed the Swedes at the Battle of Nordlingen in November 1634. The subsequent Treaty of Prague, in 1635, made clear the extent of the Habsburg triumph and the Swedish defeat. Germany's Protestant princes now backed Ferdinand ll. It phase of the Thirty Years’ War, and direct French intervention. As in the 16th century, France feared Habsburg encirclement. : Up to now, it had sought to secure itself by financing those states most likely to defeat the Habsburg forces, Sweden above all. With the of Germany, the French now took the field themselves. As Franco— Swedish armies progressively : ravaged Germany, the Swedes : gradually reversing their previous : losses, So Germany was : devastated. The fighting spilled : into France when, in 1636, : a Spanish army invaded the : northeast, briefly threatening » Paris, and again, in 1637, when : Spain launched an attack on provoked the final and most brutal = : France retaliated by invading : Catalonia in the northeast of : Spain. In this wave of violence, all » the participants were by now i effectively bankrupt. It was Spain _ that suffered the most, with Languedoc in the south. 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ae “ot wero ne! or n Ce Ke? oe COR or xo CO EN oe oa MOS es" Aso" fe eo it fa as ws ~ - rg : » eo x Rogen we ca a SS oe 4 & io ave wi Sie aes 44 WE STUDY THE GLORY OF GOD, AND THE HONOUR AND LIBERTY OF PARLIAMENT, __ FOR WHICH WE... FIGHT, WITHOUT SEEKING OUR OWN INTERESTS... 99 Oliver Cromwell, English Parliamentarian general, Battle of Marston Moor, 1644 ON APRIL 24, 1644, AS A REBEL MING ARMY under Li Zicheng prepared to take Beijing, the Chongzhen Emperor, the last Ming ruler, committed suicide. In February, Li had proclaimed the Shun dynasty, but it was not to last long. In May, the Manchus, allying with a remnant Ming force, crushed Li’s army at the Battle of Shanhai Pass. By the autumn, the first Manchu Qing emperor of China, the six-year-old Shunzhi Emperor (1638-61), had been installed in Beijing. Ming resistance in the south continued until 1681. The Qing themselves ruled until their collapse in 1911. KEY Under Manchu control by 1644 Under Qing control by 1660 Under Qing control by 1770 © July 1644 sawa : ultimate victory was In the English Civil War, the Battle of Marston Moor in decisive victory for Parliament. The following summer, at Naseby in June 1645, virtually guaranteed when the main army of Charles | was annihilated by Parliament's newly formed New Model Army. Led by : Oliver Cromwell and Sir Thomas Fairfax, the New Model Army brought a greater professionalism : and mobility into the conflict, and RUSSIAN EMPIRE MANCHURIA Mukder Having secured control of China proper in 1644, the Qing Empire continued to expand throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, provoked in part by the threat of Russian, British, and French moves into Asia. Only some areas of the vast empire were governed directly by the Manchu or settled by the Chinese. Much was secured, at huge expense, through military garrisons. Potala Palace in Tibet The Potala Palace, seen atop the Marpo Ri hillin this view from the south, rises more than 1,000 ft (300m) above the valley floor. emphasized the ultimately superior resources of the Parliamentary cause. From about 1645, the Northern Hemisphere saw crop failures brought about by abnormally cold winters. The result was famine on a massive scale, leading to both war and the collapse of state structures across the globe. These climatic changes, known since 1976 as the Maunder Minimum, were the result of reduced sunspot activity, the direct consequence of which was the Little Ice Age, in which global temperatures fell by several degrees. In 1645, the 5th Dalai Lama, Lozang Gyatso (1617-82], began the construction of the modern Potala Palace, in Lhasa, Tibet. Construction finally ended in 1694, and it remained the seat of the Dalai Lama up to 1959. Se - Carisbrooke Castle, on the Isle of Wight, England, was where Charles | was imprisoned for 14 months, from 1647, after his defeat in the English Civil War. POWER IN THE EARLY YEARS OF THE QING DYNASTY was exercised by the child-emperor’s uncle, Prince Dorgon (1612-50). A distinctive feature of the Qing was their hair, shaved at the front, braided into a pigtail at the back, and known as a “queue.” Dorgon attachment for holding strap now made this compulsory for : all male Han Chinese (the Queue © Order). Clashing with Confucian © contention that hair, as a gift from : your parents, should never be cut, : to wear a Manchu pigtail was seen : as amark of servility, as Dorgon _ intended. Thousands who refused : to adopt it were put to death. On May 26, 1647, the Massachusetts Bay Colony banned Jesuit priests from the colony. Founded as a staunchly Puritan enclave, the colonists loathed the Jesuits as a sinister manifestation of popery. Also, increasingly alarmed by the French Jesuit missionaries in Canada, who had converted many Huron and Algonquin American Indians, they were determined that a movement “subversive to society” should have no place in the new colony. After escaping Parliament's siege of Oxford in April 1646, King Charles | surrendered toa Scottish army. The next year they delivered him to Parliament. He was imprisoned at Carisbrooke Castle, on the Isle of White. From there, he , continued to try to bargain : with the various parties, but his secret negotiations with the » Scottish Presbyterians to invade English Civil War armor Metal breastplates with appended tassets (to protect the legs and lower = body] were used by foot soldiers on : England led to a renewalof the both sides during the civil war. : English Civil War. & a et yt Pye ot e® wre i= a oo Korn he" 3 oe rh Por cah ny war ahs? coe oS we ve ee OH om eo NM ye “ sno" os axe es 60” Co! K ™ ~ 2 oe? NO 0! Re oo et pger os ere oe eet ne os ee wot cs EE x ae « ees wor? gs ae a Wo oe ye we cons 2 \ sv 2 o & sc 09) CG S ¥§ < ae oo CN od fo CES 5 al po St og =e ce GRO g? ee Ries aye pita? Gee é wo 6G 2? |" AOE a 40 et get? 0” Oh ors cor 95? eee Hoe oa IT ue” WF o< b' we a 215 1450-1749 | ARMS AND ARMOUR Whether for hunting or sport, conflict or contests of skill, handheld arms REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION have played a crucial role in human existence and advancement. The first weapons developed out of survival tools: found objects, such as stones, were used to bludgeon prey, or to fend off predatory animals or rival humans. As prehistoric humans’ skills advanced, clubs and stone hand-axes gave way to carefully crafted wooden spears used to hunt animals or impale fish. Even more effective weapons married wooden shafts with razor-sharp flint blades to form axes, Like arms and body armor, shields—a type of “accessory armor’ —could be functional, decorative, or both. During the medieval period in Europe, when knights held high status in society, shields were often embellished with elaborate scenes of courtly devotion or prowess in battle. Decoration like this was thought to bring added protection to the bearer. 15th-century Flemish shield daggers, spears, and arrowheads. Soft, easily worked metals such as copper replaced flint, followed by stronger, sharper, and longer Bronze Age and Iron Age swords, daggers, javelins, and battle-axes. Until the advent of firearms, the history of handheld weapons is one of variations on a theme, culminating in the sophisticated forging processes of Japan's samurai swords, which at their height in the 14th-16th centuries wrapped super-sharp steel around a flexible iron core. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARMOR Early “armor” consisted of padding: thick layers of cloth with a stiff leather “helmet” to protect the head. Plated helmets, breastplates, and wooden shields were used by classical Greek and Roman armies, but elsewhere, ordinary soldiers relied on padding, leather, and luck—a situation that changed little in Europe until chain mail was perfected in 11th-century France. Full suits of armor were costly, so they were also used as status symbols. 2500BCE 750,000-50,000BCE Flint cutting edges Razor-sharp flint -* daggers, spears, and axes are used for both hunting and Flint warfare. dagger 450,000-400,000BcE Wooden weapons Easily worked and readily available, wood is shaped into spears for hunting or defense. Wooden spear 5500-3300 BCE Flint arrowheads The wooden bow combined with arrowheads made from sharpened flint proves a deadly combination, allowing users to strike their victims from a safe distance. 3700-2300 BCE Metal weapons Metalworking gives rise to sophisticated and effective blades in the Bronze and lron Ages. Bronze ax Helmets The first part of the body to be protected is the head. Early armies use plated helmets, but most soldiers rely on leather caps, Attic helmet c. 1400 BCE Suit armor develops ’ Plated body armor is an early invention, but it is expensive and not always practical for movement in battle. Mycenaean armor cherub’s head decoration hole to attach crest __ rope comb two sections of __/ skull plate join at comb French 16th-century embossed helmet Armor reached its greatest decorative heights during the Renaissance. Suits and helmets were embossed and etched, gilded or silvered, particularly for tournaments— and to show the owner's wealth and status. 6th-mid-5th centuries BCE The crossbow Crossbows can be cocked well in advance of firing—providing one of the earliest “loaded” weapons. Early Chinese crossbow 3rd-4th centuries Steel blades Adding carbon to iron produces steel, which allows bladed weapons to be mass-produced. Blades also become stronger and longer. Roman gladius 11th century Mail perfected Lighter and less bulky than armor plate, chain mail worn over a gambeson (padded jacket] saves lives. Chain mail ED we \ ee 1100 onward Swords improve The cross-guard is added to protect the hand, and marks the first big change to sword design since Roman times. Refined edges mean swords can now cut and stab surface is made from bright steel we closed visor protects face, but limits field -— of view 15th century First suits of full plate armor develop Suits of armor provide the best protection. Gloves now have jointed fingers, while shoulder plates bring freer movement and less exposure. THE STORY OF ARMS AND ARMOR breastplate is combined with a neck guard single pivot for visor and face guard separate plates offer protection, but allow movement peg for lifting visor ___ upper bevor decorated with figures in Roman armor 77 lb Wheel-lock pistol 15th-17th centuries | Firearms developed With the invention of guns, body armor shrinks back to the cuirass (breastplate}, to allow for drawing of pistols. The advent of the revolver, with its rotating cylinder, meant that multiple 19th century Automatic-loading firearms shots could be fired before reloading. Colt 1849 pocket pistol The return of armor During World War |, body armor was revived. German machine gunners wore suits like this one when firing from exposed places. THE APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF A FULL SUIT OF EUROPEAN 16TH- CENTURY TOURNAMENT ARMOR 1939-1945 Flak jackets Based on the same design as the cuirass, World War Il flak jackets stop shrapnel, but not bullets. Reinforced flak jacket Kevlar and “liquid” body armor Kevlar threads are five times stronger than steel. Soaked in shear thickening fluid (STF], it can withstand bullet penetration. 20th-21st centuries Pld the actions of the royalist forces in defeating the Fronde uprising in France. THE DEATH OF LOUIS XIII in May 1643 had brought to the French throne the four-year old Louis XIV, under the regency of his mother, Anne of Austria (in direct defiance of Louis XIlI’s will). Whatever France’s successes in the Thirty Years’ War (see 1635] and its emerging supremacy over Spain, the country was not only strapped for cash, it had to confront continuing peasant uprisings brought about by harvest failures and punitive demands for tax. In addition, those nobles that Cardinal Richelieu (see 1624) had excluded from government were invited back to counter those supporters of Richelieu who were hostile to Anne and her new chief minister, Cardinal Mazarin (1602-61). Bungled attempts to x \ seal of one of 44 DO YOU NOT KNOW, MY SON, WITH WHAT LITTLE WISDOM THE WORLD IS GOVERNED? 99 Axel Oxenstierna, Swedish chancellor, Westphalia, 1648 » manage factional rivalries while : maintaining a costly war were to lead to government breakdown in 1648 with the Fronde—initially a © parliamentary protest, but later an © aristocratic uprising. Four years | of turmoil followed: Paris was : taken, the royal family fled, and | Mazarin was : twice forced into exile. When it : fizzled out in 1652, the way lay : open toa better management of : aristocratic loyalties that was to © come with the personal rule of © Louis XIV from 1661. : In October 1648, after four years : of negotiations, the Thirty Years” : War in Germany was brought to : aclose with a series of treaties © collectively known as the Treaty : of Westphalia. France was still : at war with Spain las it would be i until 1659), but Germany's horrors » at least had been ended. France » secured rather vaguely defined : gains on its eastern border; : Sweden was confirmed in its : possession of Pomerania on the : Baltic coast, as well as receiving a : huge cash payment from the Holy » Roman Emperor, Ferdinand Ill, to withdraw its troops. Among the German states, Brandenburg- Prussia gained the most. Crucially, Spain also recognized \ the independence of the Dutch : Republic, and Germany's local : rulers were given the right to © make alliances with foreign : powers, in effect confirming them © as sovereign states. The authority : of the Holy Roman Emperor Treaty of Westphalia This document was agreed over several months and signed by the Holy Roman Emperor and the king 109 parties of France, ending 30 years of war. : appeared fatally undermined. 2 ae 260 8° Cee Rs) Lo 3 Soksod Se ey eo wx oo VY cP Oe Se! oe CNS < Se es) >) aoe os Rs) x) eS oe PM ye? 008 er ce Seal rn? gS Heo FF OPA cd™ 5M We ok COR ny ot Ce. Rn. re I ooh 8 OP gh oe os CRE WAP cor we Be we oe ae ROORS Ce AX Ri ees Roser og eres wee aS ae oe oe er “4 BS N of x i (a oO A = ” “ha 5 se N s ao® 2 oe x os Oe Res S we SN Rod ey Reon Ee & Seis ~ oss eof oot get ome! 8S gee Pao el AP a poe P eo” _ Mca of? 98 ALD 9” ge gor em Ren So" SS oo wr Ss © So ge 3! 9a pF er ot FO wok a? xo xo 05 SEL ¥ as SS FD Cae Cas we ane y et oe PF ook oe “oe Aa scx sv? ‘ wes ie) Qe ie eo i. eo © 2 0 oe> oe* Coad org? ot ge of Or ce et NOE PF cP nok ge™ 32% 97 Lo oF 29 od. gh oS . yore? 9. Ao oC 6 Ruse yor os oP Fo pF gE ne. oF x se S ~~ x 9 EOF 0 nN regs Ss OF Or eee ceeres ero? OSM oe 44 IT IS NOT WISDOM BUT AUTHORITY THAT MAKES A LAW. 99 Thomas Hobbes, English philosopher, from Leviathan, 1651 CHARLES I'S EXECUTION did not mark the final collapse of the royalist cause in England. Arump army, much of it Scottish, was still: active. The royalists had an obvious figure to rally round, Charles's elder son, also called Charles. Yet his defeat at Worcester in September 1651 marked the final battle of the English Civil War, and saw Charles = forced into a nine-year exile. One of the foundations of Western political philosophy appeared in 1651 when Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) published Leviathan. It argued for the absolutism of a sovereign authority. Though recognizing the liberty of the individual, Hobbes believed that anarchy could only be averted through a strong central government. It was an early example of social contract theory [individuals in society are united by mutual consent) and was profoundly influential. In 1648, the Khmelnytsky Uprising sawa Cossack revolt against the rule of the Polish- Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Ukraine, which had been awarded to Poland under the Treaty of Lublin of 1589. The uprising climaxed in 1651 with the Battle of Berestechko, the largest single battle of the 17th century. The result was a victory of sorts for the Polish-Lithuanians. However, the ultimate effect of the struggle was a weakening of the Commonwealth, which was already wracked by numerous internal disputes among its querulous nobles. POLISH-LITHUANIAN FORCES 40,000 cavalry 700 casualties 40,000 cavalry 40,000 casualties COSSACK-CRIMEAN TARTAR FORCES : Battle of Berestechko, 1651 The Cossack-Crimean Tartar forces : suffered 40,000 casualties at : Berestechko, far more than their : Polish-Lithuanian adversaries. The first of three wars between _ England and the Netherlands began in 1652 (two followed in © 1665-67 and 1672-74). All were naval wars fought for command of the sea and shipborne = commerce. For the Dutch, a small nation with few natural ' resources, but still the leading mercantile power of Europe, they assumed vast importance. For : the English, they marked the : emergence of a new bullish confidence. England's eventual victory signaled the decline of : Dutch commercial preeminence, : and launched a new Anglo- » Frenchrivalry for commercial and colonial supremacy. Qe & Bs os oe” dP oc F oh oe oe ot awe we OS ry oh seo? ee 0 er oo™ o® ce? & * 3 A woe se oe ms “0 we Roe So Cons poe x ws ya eo The Coronation of Louis XIV, a tapestry from a painting by Charles Le Brun, court artist to Louis XIV, shows the young Louis about to receive his crown. ONE OF THE WORLD'S ICONIC structures, the Taj Mahal, in Agra, India, was completed in 1653 after 19 years. A mausoleum built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (1592-1666) in memory of his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, it combined Indian, Persian, and Islamic styles of architecture. In December 1653, Oliver Cromwell was made Lord Protector of England. Various types of government for the new republic had previously been tried, including military rule, while parliaments were formed and dissolved, generally by the irascible Cromwell, with great rapidity. Cromwell resisted the idea that he be made king. In the end, after his death in September 1658, it appeared desirable and inevitable that the vacuum could be filled only by the restoration of the actual king-in-waiting, the future Charles II Weakened by its struggle with the Cossacks during the Khmelnytsky Uprising, the partial dismemberment of the Polish- Lithuanian Commonwealth by neighbors eager for territorial gains became inevitable. The resulting devastation—its population almost halved, its economy all but destroyed—is known as The Deluge. Not only did Poland endure a Russian invasion in June 1654, in what became known as the Thirteen Years’ War, the following year Sweden, too, invaded the country. The most enduring consequence of this calamitous period was not 3 me : merely Poland's loss of the i Ukraine to Russia under the | Treaty of Andrusovo in 1667; : rather, that Orthodox Russia was. : immensely boosted, and its czars’ © claims to rule “all the Russias” : made tangible. On June 7, 1654, the 15-year-old © Louis XIV was crowned king of : France. Since acceding to the : throne when aged four, first his © mother and then Cardinal Mazarin © acted as regent. His subsequent : reign, of 72 years and 110 days, i remains one of history's longest. : Taj Mahal © This view of the white-domed marble : of the Taj Mahal, in India, has made : itone of the most recognizable and : admired buildings in the world. yr See | We > Cae Rs rs oe pn eh eco He OG Wee cd ge cs we om Ss 3 c yo" cons 38 ere of a> xo Pe? ne oe ——— pyr PK ue eet yo Pi os ROR eho 36 PO pe! gc Rr Oe? pe at ios ot ar pr dot Wo” rs of x Saar Sl Oy ys ae of ° Kone oe yt oe = aS er 60S Cee ~ ' er AO ce CaS eic™ HBr oo yo” ef oS oh é & we oot ner, se se? 0 oe Or ay os eo ED) Fhe a? Oe aS roe oh oe Ree ys shae odes whe APP Oe oye eS ea BF er, a PD See yp’ sm or dnor® or Ph es yet eo® 8° o er oe oes Ro Hod er ye 29) This engraving on wood depicts Brandenburg forces storming Polish positions at the Battle of Warsaw in 1656 during the First Northern War. THE APPROXIMATE SIZE OF THE EMPIRE CLAIMED BY PORTUGAL FEARFUL OF RUSSIAN DOMINATION OF THE BALTIC, Sweden entered the Thirteen Years’ War between Russia and Poland-Lithuania in 1655, thus creating the First Northern War. Other countries were sucked in and alliances changed. In 1656, the Polish capital Warsaw was : taken by a Swedish-Brandenburg force, further undermining the Polish-Lithuanian state. One of the greatest paintings in © Western culture was created in : 1656 when Spanish artist Diego Velazquez (1599-1660) painted : Las Meninas, an enigmatic work : that has been hugely influential. A renewed phase of Ottoman : confidence began when Kopriilii : Mehmed (1575-1661] became © grand vizier in 1656, Sultan : Mehmed IV handing him control : of the empire. He ruthlessly : stamped out opposition and = embarked on a series of military ' campaigns—completed after his » death in 1661—that saw the | empire atits greatest extent. | Las Meninas Diego Velazquez's painting of | Margarita, the daughter of Philip IV : of Spain, and her entourage, is : known for its complex composition. e ee” Da xe ao wo 8 3 sr Rog ae uo cok, Ss ns ¢ go om oh ote" Hee aS 2. RS Pre, of we KS oF oo ey Roles $ ° 6 ¢ 3 < S Ce Ok ee SM bP ge epg bP eo ve oe Soyo? 17 of eo Fee J pM? a Nan?” 28 oe sv? a. ye ye? Dieeeoose CAS Oe OS ot OFS x wr ¢ & We oor o eye Po Sa 6 ye Aer fe xO os fo Coe ie & w © 29 a nS & o ae x 3 Se ore See Ag or se od ae ows wre roars Oram ho Fc? poe _ oat ve Foe p% on COM es Pr oo ok git ed ot ces oo ooo FOr rate KS Sen Oh oe aC Oe eZ aor o™ PF PF se 9? 6 wh oo 095, a" ob oS eo oe 8 ce R 5 3° C Cc SHO” ol ys oe o ne ge ys oP 0° eo % eee we Re “o 220 ae Amanuscript showing Ottoman troops on the island of Lemnos. ON MARCH 2, 1657, the Great Fire of Meireki began in Edo (Tokyo). In two days, fed by relentless winds, it destroyed almost 70 percent of the city, consuming the paper and wooden buildings and killing around 100,000 people. Although an offshoot of the First Northern War, the Swedish- Danish Wars of 1657-58 and 1658-60 developed into a largely separate conflict over control of the Baltic when, in June 1657, Denmark joined the coalition confronting Sweden in Poland. Sweden had made consistent gains at Denmark’s expense since the mid-16th century; the prize, control of The Sound—the strategically and economically vital entrance to the Baltic—still under Danish control in 1657. In the winter of 1657-58, Charles X of Sweden (1622-60) outflanked the Danes, marching his troops into Denmark and then, in February, across the frozen Baltic to Copenhagen itself. The Treaty of Roskilde in 1658 confirmed Sweden’s territorial dominance. The second war, if less favorable to Sweden, still underlined Sweden's Baltic superiority. With the Ottoman Empire now reinvigorated by Grand Vizier Koprulu Mehmed, in late 1657 its fleet captured the Aegean islands of Lemnos and Tenedos from the Venetians. The islands, which dominated the approaches to the Dardanelles, had been used by the Venetians to blockade Constantinople, the Ottoman capital. The Venetians would not pose such a threat again. ee wt 2° eo 8? 62 ws ween WO Ron oto yo" Sheer AS 97 ph ys IN JUNE 1658, AURANGZEB (1618-1707), or Alamgir (“Conqueror of the World”) as he called himself, was crowned Mughal emperor. It ended two years of infighting between him and his brothers for their father, Shah Jahan’s, throne—this despite Shah Jahan still being alive. All three brothers were subsequently executed (two by Aurangzeb). His reign would prove paradoxical. Mughal India was still immensely rich and powerful. Under Aurangzeb, a devout Muslim, it reached it greatest territorial extent (see p.234). Yet the near continuous warfare of his 49-year reign, in which immense I : Conqueror of the World This portrait of the Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb I, seen here with his courtiers, is attributed to the Indian artist Bhawani Das. a ne Jor 98" ror” cS Ihe ew oO ee oF 08 SEE A630 gi oh Pro® oh ST APP oo o ae) eo ww? 3 2 Og s& Fee 54 NO PY oc" eo 32 on oo Hah - od ~ oe Cn OP Pe wD oP C2 965 Or oe SH FF WO PO The Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659 saw Louis XIV of France (center left) meet Philip IV of Spain to ratify the treaty that ended Franco-Spanish conflict. NORWAY Christianiae DENMARK Copenhagen® BREMEN eo - campaigns were launched against the Sikhs and the Marathas, exhausted the country’s treasuries and highlighted the internal flaws of his vast empire By his death in 1707, it was visibly in decline. Near Dunkirk, in northeastern France, on June 14, 1658 a combined Anglo-French force defeated the Spanish. This was the last decisive conflict of the Franco-Spanish War that had begun in 1635, and as such the last battle of the Thirty Years’ War. It was also the last confrontation of the Anglo-Spanish War, which had begun in 1654. For the French, the imperative, as ever, was dominance in Europe; for the English, to steal whatever advantage, commercial or territorial, they could over Spain, hence the pragmatic alliance between Oliver Cromwell's Puritan England with Louis XIV's Catholic France. APP & ere 3 3 NPY ont G PMO . M ee AO” 0% (0? <0 15? amornmen aise on oe wes cS » peewee Oe ‘ oF ge 2 poe re po ot 22 sek o ‘ et a MYSELF A LITTLE THE MORE IN PLEASURE, KNOWING THAT THIS IS THE PROPER AGE OF MY LIFE TO DO IT. 99 Samuel Pepys, English diarist, diary entry, 1660 “L.. BLESSED GOD... IT WAS THE LORD’S DOING.” With these words diarist John Evelyn recorded the overwhelming reception accorded Charles II (1630-85) in London in May 1660 on his restoration as king of England. By any measure, Charles's restoration was a triumphant vindication of the principles of kingship, as well as of the contradictory limitations of Oliver Cromwell's republican experiment. Charles II swept back to his throne on a wave of popular sentiment. Worldly, knowing, and, at heart, lazy, Charles was always ready to compromise with his parliamentary opponents. His charm was legendary. That said, his weakness for pleasure- seeking combined with his instinctive sympathy for Catholicism, especially when funded by Louis XIV in France, highlighted a still unresolved political crisis. Charles, by turns vengeful and forgiving, never : resolved this dilemma. It was left to his successor, the rather less shrewd James Il, to provoke the crisis that would later definitively propel England into a unique parliamentary revolution (see 1688). The famous English diarist » Samuel Pepys (1633-1703) began putting his daily thoughts on paper in 1660. Pepys wasa high-ranking naval official, and his diary, which he kept until 1669 » but which was not published until the 19th century, provided one of © the most valuable sources of information on life during the English Restoration. The death of Cardinal Mazarin (see 1648) in 1661 began the personal rule of the 22-year-old : Louis XIV. He would remain on the French throne for a further © 53 years. A childhood in which France was divided made him aware of the need to develop a _ Style of personal assertiveness : and grandeur. This was to impress - on the French elites that they : were part of his great project for : French glory and preeminence in Europe. United under a ruler who recognized their privileges and status, French nobles and officials : supported a series of wars to assert this position. However, : these wars would bring France © to the brink of disaster and pauperize most of its population. Yet the cultural impact of Louis’ rule remained; no other European country would approach France : in the second half of the 17th © century for such a projection of : national preeminence 4° $ re ae ea xe Ry AY os SD SK gch Ce ol get oor geek ee ape ore yo? 3 son oe 2 nt of 4° 6? 0" Pe? we ON toe oa oD oF 8 G0 eee ~ od w fers we Fa \ Cg na Wwe ws SETS oF am EAS CaF GO os ta cea Heth tec™ eg” Prose ape se? ge ‘or “s e" ec x € ee By yr? oF ot Poe is wr? 272 ‘A 1635 view of Fort Zeelandia, in Tainan, present-day Taiwan. FOR ALMOST FOUR DECADES the Dutch East India Company had controlled western Formosa (Taiwan), with its trading base Fort Zeelandia at its heart. Hostile to this alien presence, the Chinese Ming dynasty besieged the fort, which was inadequately supplied by water, and captured it in February 1662. The Dutch were forced to abandon Formosa. The pace of scientific investigation in the 17th century led Europe's scientists to share ideas, and then to form bodies devoted to a better understanding of science. In 1662, the Royal Society, the world’s oldest such scientific body, was founded in London. That it had royal approval showed how both the practical application of science and the pursuit of pure knowledge had become of interest to the state. MILLION THE PRICE IN LIVRES FOR WHICH FRANCE BOUGHT DUNKIRK » ae a asa ox a 0 arnt RY ° Vo 3 yao a \ of oe The people of New Amsterdam plead with its director-general, Peter Stuyvesant, not to resist the English warships gathering in the harbor. NUMEROUS ENGLISH RAIDS on Dutch shipping and trading posts in this year were the result of an English desire to win as much Dutch trade as possible. The most : _ONE LOVES. 99 successful of these took place on August 27, when a small English fleet arrived at New Amsterdam, the capital of the Dutch North American colony of New Netherland, and demanded its surrender. Director-general Peter Stuyvesant eventually complied. By March 1665, the Second Anglo-Dutch War broke out. The Austro-Turkish War that broke out in 1663 reached a climax in August 1664, when an Battle of St. Gotthard Adolf Ehrhardt, shows an attack by (6 ONEIS HASILY _ FOOLED BY _THAT WHICH | Moliére, from Tartuffe, 1664 » Ottoman army, intent on capturing | : Vienna, was defeated by a _ Habsburg force at St. Gotthard, © Hungary. Although the Ottomans : gained favorable peace terms, : their invasion was curtailed. Alarmed at English and Dutch © domination of trade with Asia, » in 1664 the French East India : Company was established, with : royal patronage. It was lavishly This woodcut, based on a drawing by ; funded, but it resulted only in : the settlement of the island of the Habsburg cavalry in the defeat of : the Ottomans at St. Gotthard. Réunion in the Indian Ocean and a : handful of trading posts in India. 2 < eh? se pre ae vos oF xe wr or wv os SW Ri ERS FF on or 3 RSE SF 3 PF ao ge? aos Ro = OF es’ ony” CO arg < $9" oo rk aD ot Caos oF yor ot 8% pe? D? We ed oe So CR oe es <<“ pw oe a as & S Ss 46 THE MIND IS ITS OWN PLACE AND IN ITSELF, CAN MAKE A HEAVEN OF HELL, A HELL OF HEAVEN. 99 John Milton, English poet, from Paradise Lost, 1667 THE TREATY OF ANDRUSOVO in January 1667 ended the Polish- Lithuanian Commonwealth's calamitous war with Russia that had begun in 1654. It also climaxed The Deluge—its dramatic decline above all in the face of Russian expansion. Russia, granted Smolensk and present-day Belarus, could for the first time claim to have unified the Slavic peoples of the region. The completion in 1667 of the Piazza San Pietro, by Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680), saw the high point of urban planning in Baroque Rome. Many of Rome’s public spaces were ambitiously rebuilt by a series of architects to make them deliberately imposing, and worthy to be at the center of the Catholic Church. The War of Devolution began in May 1667 as a result of Louis XIV’s continuing claims to the Spanish Netherlands. It saw France take some Habsburg cities in Flanders, as well as Franche-Comté to its east. However, a Triple Aliance of THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE KILLED IN THE SAMAKHI EARTHQUAKE IN AZERBAIJAN England, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic forced the isolated Louis to return most of his gains by the 1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1667, the epic poem Paradise Lost, by English poet John Milton (1608-74), gave the English language one of its greatest literary achievements. It told the Christian story of man’s fall from grace in the Garden of Eden. Siege of Lille Louis XIV directs French forces at Lille during the War of Devolution. Its capture provided one of France's few gains from a frustrating conflict. SS Ds? o SS Be ~ ea oes 4 ook e ote" a eo “oP oe sor xo? oe o > o% GG Ree 0% or a? We o¥ Becta SCAN ROE per an Coe ck a SE oe aS oo yw : of RS) sae e? oe oo -) bs oe Awoodcut portrait of the admiral and privateer Henry Morgan. THE PORTUGUESE TRADING POST AT BOMBAY (Mumbai) had passed to the English Crown in 1662 as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza, Charles II's Portuguese wife. In 1668, the king leased it to the East India Company for an annual rent of £10, making it the Company's third trading post in India after those at Surat and Madras. With Bombay Castle completed in 1675, from 1687 it became the focus of all the Company's trading in India, resisting attempts to storm it by the Mughals and the Dutch. In 1668, the Welsh privateer (state-sponsored raider) Henry Morgan, famous for his attacks on Spanish settlements in the Caribbean, succeeded in one of the most daring assaults ever when his ships captured the well-protected Spanish trading city of Porto Bello, in Panama. It won him both great wealth and further English support for his buccaneering endeavors. Just as Philip II's seizure of the Portuguese crown in 1580 was a sign of Spanish power, so its recognition of Portuguese independence in 1668 under the Treaty of Lisbon, which confirmed the House of Braganza as rulers of Portugal, was evidence of its decline. From 1640, Portugal had been in open revolt against Spain, and in June 1665 at the Battle of Montes Claros a combined Anglo-Portuguese force inflicted a crushing defeat on them. Close to bankruptcy, and sure of further French hostility, the Spanish had little option but to concede. o a x Wee wre. SS Moe PS ooo to» . Dy or Ve ae Si ed pF got othe Hs To Sod? oS oF OP as ee) RO are are em of er >t os SO oh Foe’ ech ad oT cee ee Wo Rho ee se xo Vd? 6 oe Roy a ot x x so pw? oe. a aco © we e sh ae ge™ choc cee > ot Re segs ge 02 rye” aor gi yr ye™ ve’ AS) oto oat? oF ol . a g ec) 223 464 COME QUICKLY, IAM DRINKING THE STARS. 99 Attributed to Dom Pérignon, while tasting champagne, 1670 » (2 4 e Portuguese glazed tiles decorate the Sao Miguel Fortress in Luanda, a key military strongpoint in the colonization of Angola in the later 17th century. The Badshahi Mosque, Lahore, was commissioned by Aurangzeb. ONE OF THE REASONS GIVEN FOR THE DISINTEGRATION of the Mughal Empire after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 has been his supposed religious persecution of Hindus and other minorities. Where his predessor Akbar | had pursued an active policy of religious toleration as the most effective means of controlling his Hindu vassals, Aurangzeb— himself a Sunni Muslim—was said to have systematically destroyed Hindu temples. In addition, he banned the use of music, central to Hindu practice, issuing a decree, perhaps in 1649, to this effect. He also had drawn up an exhaustive digest of Muslim law, the Fatawa-e- Alamgri, said to have been rigorously imposed. All these claims are disputed, however. In fact, the number of Hindu temples said to have been destroyed varies improbably from 80 to 60,000. That Aurangzeb was strongly anti-Christian, though, seems certain to have been true. THE ANNUAL REVENUE RAISED BY AURANGZEB'S EXCHEQUER IN MAY 1670, THE HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY WAS FORMED under British royal charter on the initiative of two French fur trackers, Pierre-Esprit Radisson and Médard de Groseilliers. They had learned that the best furs came from the Cree territory to the north of Lake Superior. Easier to reach via Hudson Bay rather Rebuffed in France, they solicited support in England. The Hudson's Bay Company would become one of the great commercial enterprises of England, the basis of its claim to Canada, and source of regional rivalry with France. The claim that in 1670 Dom Pérignon (1638-1715), a monk at the Benedictine Abbey of Hautvillers, in Champagne in northeast France, invented the sparkling wine of that name, is largely discounted today. In fact, , Cossack leader © Stepan Razin, the Cossack leader : who rose up against the nobility and : the czar’s bureaucracy, is seen here : on the Volga River, South Russia. : he was devoted to eliminating the : bubbles such wines produced, as : the pressure they built up in the | bottles tended to explode them. : Butas cellar master of the Abbey, than via the rivers and lakes to the : south, they proposed a base there. = : by using grapes otherwise used in » red wine. It was not until the early | 18th century that the taste for : sparkling wines, in England and : France, grew rapidly. he did make a major contribution to the production of white wines, A Cossack uprising in South © Russia in 1670 was brutally : suppressed by the czar, and its : leader Stepan Razin was executed © the following year. An attempt to : protect Cossack independence ' against the centralized Russian | state had become a revolt bya | disaffected peasantry that saw : several cities sacked and looted. IN 1671, PORTUGAL ENDED THE INDEPENDENCE of the kingdom of Ndongg, in what is today Angola. A Portuguese colony had largely dominated the Ndongo since the 16th century, but a rebellion by their king, Philip, in 1671, saw Portuguese troops capture the capital and take control of its entire territory. Just as fears of Spanish dominance in Europe had allied France, England, and the Dutch Republic, so French dominance after 1659 saw anti-French alliances throw Spain and the Dutch Republic together. Spain opposed Louis XIV's claim to the Spanish Netherlands by marriage, : while the Dutch preferred a weak : Spain as a neighbor to a strong | France. The War of Devolution of : 1667-68 had seen French gains, : and then losses, in the Spanish : Netherlands, but in 1672 Louis, : allied with England and Sweden, : tried again in the Franco—Dutch War. The war ended with the » Dutch granting New Amsterdam : to England, while the French— although their conquest of the : Dutch Republic failed—gained the : former Burgundian territory of the | Franche-Comté and a string of : border territories in the Spanish : Netherlands. Yet the peace proved » a brief pause in Louis’ attempts to expand and safeguard France. A valuable natural asset of North America was fur. It drove the French westward into Canada and saw the English establish the Hudson’s Bay Company (see 1670). It also led to Anglo-French conflict there. While the French would accompany the American Indians on fur-trapping expeditions, the English, and the Dutch (pictured) before them, usually took delivery of furs from the Indians at their trading posts. All depended on Indian aid, while the Indians became dependent on European weapons and tools. b AY A 3 e ny s cy $ 3 < © x J . 2 “ 2 rae 2 S we Oe x ae <> 7 0 oF od > ee sO ods Oe od nee m S AS os cS 7. one Fo oF Boe ao? Beg Px E> re oye oe = ee URS ees = ee wee S Se Os aot = we xa iS 3 as 2 40% ¥g z e Sen 3 Pn§ oO > Sek as” Foe ee ao? One Oe or ae? at pi” Foes oo oS Cos we ofa? we ho WF vo" —— oo wet preg BOP e Ned SS so S Rae RS os ot a age) ao orcs gt yerro® g ans tc NF igs Bas CS Soa. e 3 3 geo eS 8 o s Leibniz mechanical calculator One of the first calculating machines, developed by Gottfried Leibniz, this device multiplies by making repeated additions. In 1671, German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) demonstrated one of the world’s first mechanical calculators. It was the first such machine that could perform all four of the basic arithmetic functions. Leibniz went on to further refine his calculating machines, thus providing the basis of the modern calculator. Repeated Cossack and Crimean Tartar revolts against the weakened Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1672 drew their Ottoman allies into a four-year Polish-Ottoman War. Polish resistance under Jan III Sobieski (1629-96) was greatly undermined by grudging support from the Polish parliament, the Sejm, and was hardly equal to the progressively larger armies of the Ottomans. The result was the loss of what Little prestige Poland could still claim as well as most of its Ukrainian territories. Marquette and Jolliet descend the Mississippi River with their guides. THE EXTENSIVE WATERWAYS OF North America provided a ready-made means of exploring its interior. In 1673, French-Canadian explorer Louis Jolliet and French Jesuit Jacques Marquette traveled down the Mississippi River to within 370 miles (600km) of the Gulf of Mexico, They turned back for fear of arousing Spanish hostility but discovered the Missouri and Ohio rivers, as well as confirming that the river led to the Gulf and not the Pacific. English exploration inland from their scattered coastal settlements was much more hesitant, rarely coordinated, and additionally blocked by the Appalachian mountain chain. It almost always depended on native assistance For example, it was after spending a year with a group of Tomahitan Indians in present-day Georgia that Gabriel Arthur traveled with them across the Cumberland Gap, unwittingly discovering what in the 18th century would be the principal route to Kentucky and the west. THE LENGTH OF THE APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS WG ‘\ Cw o- So® se X iS 8 ae a oe ye® we” Ceremonial entrance of the Qing emperor, Kangxi, to Beijing. Kangxi oversaw the complete suppression of the Three Feudatories revolt. FOLLOWING THEIR TAKEOVER OF CHINA WITH THE COLLAPSE of the Ming dynasty in 1644, the Qing coopted some of the more powerful Ming generals, making them regional governors and allowing them considerable latitude in their rule over what became almost independent territories. It was felt that if they enriched themselves—as they did on a prodigious scale—the less likely it was that they would revolt. The risk was that their progressively greater revenues would be matched by greater pretensions to rule China. In 1674, the Revolt of the Three Feudatories broke out across southern China in those provinces controlled by the three most prominent rebels, Wu Sangui, Shang Kexi Gungdong, and Geng Jingzhong, joined by lesser Ming governors. Led by the Kangxi Emperor (1654- 1722), the Qing response, with its superior military, was successful, Statue of Shivaji This bronze statue of Shivaji on horseback in Maharashtra, India, commemorates his leadership of the Maratha campaign for self-rule. albeit not until 1681. With the rebels as wary of each other as they were of the Qing, they rarely cooperated, allowing the Qing to pick them off one by one. Those rebels who did not commit suicide were executed. After freeing the Hindu Maratha from the Sultan of Bijapur, Shivaji (1630-80) was crowned Maratha king in 1674, establishing the Maratha Empire (see p.242) * that would later defeat the Mughals to dominate India until the early 19th century. e é ‘id 2 OS ov < ee & 3% x x, es ey Sy Sa Bias wie oP 00? SS yee S Sie 5 =e os oe? whoa ry ee ne 5? of 30° \ roo 2 ce os os so ae “ m4 is x O on 8 o& * nc" Sho es pie Teo o 3 FO ot P%XZW sh eeMad Sem eon’ o atc ore Beh goto O™ > oF ceo gO _ gel gS” Foe Be I er e™ —_ nen Ose acd Sores ) oS ey o “ os oe oo v y Ra \s we Frederick William | leads his troops at the Battle of Fehrbellin. IN 1675, MUGHAL EMPEROR AURANGZEB ORDERED THE EXECUTION of Tegh Bahadur, ninth guru of the Sikhs, after he had refused to convert to Islam. It brought to the Sikh throne his nine-year-old son, Gobind Singh (1666-1708). It would be several years later that, under Singh's leadership, the Sikhs would pose a growing military threat to Mughalrule, and contribute significantly to its collapse. However, the pattern of religious opposition to the Mughals was already well established in many parts of India, most obviously in the Western Ghats, where Shivaji had declared the Maratha Empire. On June 18, 1675, a combined Prussian and Brandenburg army, led by Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg [1620-88], met and defeated a Swedish army, led by Count von Wrangel, near Fehrbellin, in Brandenburg. This relatively insignificant battle in the Scanian War, itself a by-product of the Franco-Dutch War, nonetheless marked a crucial moment in Sweden's long struggle to impose itself as the dominant Baltic power. Defeat at the hands of an otherwise relatively minor German state dealt the Swedesa lasting blow. Swedish pretensions to great power status were revealed as precarious at best. Horseshoe Falls, on the Canadian sid (800m) wide. Europeans first discove! IN FRANCE, LOUIS XIV’S principal architectural endeavors concentrated on his immense palace at Versailles, just outside Paris. Louis was also determined to continue the transformation of the French capital, begun by his grandfather Henry IV at the start of the 17th century. Henry's intent had been to lift the city from medieval slum to a capital worthy of the first power of Europe—a city to rival Rome for its imposing public buildings and commanding spaces. The Louvre Palace, predictably, was significantly enlarged and remodeled, notably the east wing, whose stately facade encapsulated the French taste for Classicism at its most austere : and precise. But the building that most memorably reflects Louis's contribution to Paris is Les Invalides, or more properly L'H6tel National des Invalides. Part hospital, part retirement home for : French soldiers, it was completed in 1676. Designed by Libéral Bruant (1635-97), Les Invalides was conceived on an grand scale, with vast formal gardens je of Niagara Falls, is about 2,600 ft red this natural wonder in 1677. i sweeping up to its immense : facade and 15 courtyards clustered behind. Its most : memorable feature, the lavish » royal chapel L’Eglise du Déme, : was added slightly later. Placed : at the southern end of the : complex, it was designed with a : vast dome and spire, with details picked out in gold. Louis XIV's reign marked one of : the most fertile periods of : French literature. The year 1677 | saw the first performance of : Phédre, the greatest tragedy of French dramatist Jean Racine (1639-99). Dramatists such as : Racine, Pierre Corneille (1606- : 84), and Moliére (1622-73) thrived | : under royal patronage, captivating court audiences in different ways. : Corneille and Racine reflected courtly concerns through their : use of formal verse, classical : themes, and emphasis on honor, : virtue, and renunciation, while Moliére’s racy dramas mocked the social pretensions of the © bourgeoisie. As a result of this rich and growing theatrical _ tradition, the Comédie-Francaise was established in Paris under ) royal patronage. This official state : theater aimed to showcase the : glories of the French stage : and French ——— : culture as widely F | as possible. | European : explorers began | to realize the : immensity of : North America as the 17th century | progressed. The i extraordinary variety | and natural beauty of its landscape also : continued to amaze. : The discovery of Niagara Falls in 1677, : a waterfall hugely larger | than any in Europe, with © over 6,000,000cuft (170,000 cum) : of water thundering over it every : minute, provoked wonder in the Old World. There is doubt as to : which European can claim to have : seen the falls first. However, the » French Franciscan missionary © Louis Hennepin (1626-1701), » exploring at the request of King : Louis XIV, is generally credited : with their discovery, in 1677. \ \ engraving of author Religious work This is the frontispiece from the third edition of John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress, a hugely influential work in the 17th century. One of literature’s most significant religious works was published in February 1678. The Pilgrim's Progress was written by English writer and Christian preacher John Bunyan (1628-88), who completed much of the work while imprisoned in Bedford Gaol (jail). It was published in two parts (the second part appeared in 1684) and is an allegorical tale of an everyman’s journey from this world to heaven. The Pilgrim's Progress has become one of the most translated books in history. Les Invalides, Paris These sumptuous buildings now contain museums and monuments relating to France's military history, and a hospital for war veterans. oo Ss ve com eo Ny hod x i AS D ae 3 © ws ws of NS Rog tee Sa x eRe eS Cie CS) oF es WS’ Ronen 0 Cer aS OF 2 ad oe 312 Bl cn or Pe ri a Boats oo oo new aro” er oo Ae oe™ ~ je Ne x) NP 3™ a I oot ae oe oe We oo oe oa Ps we Pe ger ge EN ito COR oe whe COA ae oo ms x? ae 3 yo? we ico o & °° ‘> < oe vee i ¥ ys Coe b . . ~ ao wo & sae xs oP 3 se 30 nel oe os ee ES xe eS oe Hee ter ce ° er oa® eon 09. 8 Rr >, (oe So aon ey ro Rees SS aa SP oN COE) a oe Cease ae ns Ss co ENO nb 2" oe Xe Sad er co OO ND go VE ook" ek "ye oc) ae Vor oo™ a ge? eos gi oo" we ree ge SS we oe RG te er 42 co ye sae 1%) aa SW Oc e™ S Co ar ¢ & A? oye ROS $s nes ie Ces coe) gs C) ae" x g 0" nog _ A 19th-century image of the Asante, who dominated West Africa from the 1680s. | IN 1679, THE ENGLISH | PARLIAMENT passed the Habeas | Corpus Act. Like Magna Carta (see 1215], it represented a cornerstone of English liberty. It is the legal assertion that no one may be unlawfully detained. The law was passed for pragmatic reasons rather than as a liberal principle of justice. Its aim was to prevent James, Duke of York, the Catholic brother and heir of Charles Il, from arresting his Protestant opponents without legal justification, as Charles's 44 YOU MAY HOLD THE BODY, | SUBJECT TO | EXAMINATION. 99 | English writ of Habeas Corpus, 1679 chief minister, the Earl of Clarendon, had begun to do. The underlying principle of the Act, | which is incorporated into the | American Constitution, remains | fundamental to most Anglo-Saxon | legal systems as an ultimate | guarantee of individual liberty. However, in reality the law is | hardly ever invoked. In August 1680, the Pueblo | people of the colony of New Mexico rose against the Spanish occupiers and drove them from the area for 12 years. Spanish claims to New Mexico, though | dating back to Francisco | Coronado’s expeditions of the | RY ay? oo opt ech se? CO) Ss) 27” ~ wre ef i ot “a we 9 aS yo” At so” ere AO & tt oe se ws ais a W ous yer oth oetos® oe? oo x be << mid-16th century, had never amounted to much more than statements of priority and Christian preeminence over the region. New Mexico was seen as a land of marginal value as it was remote and arid. The Pueblo revolt was provoked partly by drought and by the suffering such natural events inevitably brought in their wake, but more particularly by Spain's determination to crush local religious practices—Pueblo shamen were consistently accused of witchcraft and executed. When the Spanish returned in 1692, they did so in overwhelming numbers. The Asante kingdom, founded in about 1680, was formed from the Akan, who dominated West Africa. The most prominent group of the Akan was the Oyoko. Using diplomacy and warfare, the Oyoko consolidated the Akan tribes in the 1670s, uniting them against the threat of the neighboring Denkyira, who they eventually conquered in 1701 at the Battle of Feyiase (in modern Ghana). Few projects revealed the : determination of Louis XIV's France to extend itself than the construction of the Canal du Midi, a navigable inland waterway that stretched between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Its construction | was necessary because it would replace a perilous and indirect sea passage with a simple canal | route. The technical problems, no less than the cost, were daunting. The main problem was how to ensure a sufficient supply of water to the highest parts of the canal. It was easily the most complex : engineering problem undertaken by any 17th-century European state, calling for labor ona massive scale, and used entirely untried engineering solutions. : When completed in 1681, the : Canal du Midi stretched a distance of 149 miles (240km). The Pueblo of southwest North America, so called by the Spanish for their pueblos, or villages, were famed for their sophisticated and elaborate pottery. Itis characterized by a light background on which are painted stylized animals and repeated abstract patterns in ocher, black, and gray coloring. 44 HE THAT DOES GOOD FOR GOOD’S SAKE SEEKS NEITHER PARADISE NOR REWARD, BUT HE IS SURE OF BOTH IN THE END. 99 William Penn, English Quaker, establishing Philadelphia, 1682 Penn in America This detail from a painting shows English Quaker William Penn's meeting with American Indians in what is now the state of Delaware. THE 1682 CORONATION OF nine-year-old Peter the Great (1672-1725) as czar of Russia brought to a close this vast nation’s vague, imperial influence as a semipower on the margins of Europe. Peter's childhood was scarred by revolt, and it left him determined to punish his internal enemies and reshape Russia as a western European power. Ina life of compulsive energy, he built a new capital, St. Petersburg, and ruthlessly imposed himself on his boyars (nobles). His version of Versailles, recreated on the edge of the Baltic, did not amount to much more than a statement of intent, but by the end of his reign Russia was a massive power-in- waiting, looming over Europe. In 1682, nine years after Jolliet and Marquette had ventured down the Mississippi, confirming that these territories contained neither easily exploited wealthy natives nor obvious sources of gold, Robert de La Salle (1643-87), a veteran of North American exploration, determined to follow the river to its mouth. With his party of 19 American Indians, he reached it on April 9, 1682, and proclaimed the river and its hinterlands a French possession, Louisiana, named after the French king. This formed the basis of a French claim to a vast swathe of North America. Yet a follow-up expedition by sea in 1684 failed to find the river and saw three of its four ships wrecked. La Salle was murdered by the remainder of his party. In 1682, William Penn (1644— 1718), an English Quaker and philosopher who had been granted land in North America Awe a le : belonging to James, Duke : of York, founded the settlement : that would grow into the city of : Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. : Penn promised religious freedom » and material wealth to all those | Europeans who settled there. French claims to North America _ Newfoundland : : i " This map depicts the ‘York Fact tig we] vast areas of North | sl ) . + NORTH ED ‘ . America claimed by AMERICA Ph = < Deion France, as wellas the i LMontre areas under Spanish _PAYSD'EN * - LoxeH@UT and British control in as New York 4 Michigan « FMP scans the late 17th century. 2? aa » * = sf ATLANTIC ° &5— ie h SEE MWererieston = OCFAN ey _ © British control = SAINT- and settlement eee: © Spanish control ate degesaite Domingo YALTY OF NEW SPAIN Caribbean Sea and settlement ) French control and settlement French influence — approximate western limit of French claim BAT Empire's two-month siege of Vienna. ON JULY 14, 1683, AN OTTOMAN army besieged Vienna. As with the previous Ottoman attempt on The Battle of Kahlenberg saw a Polish-Imperial army lift the Ottoman : League of the Holy Roman : Empire, Poland, and Venice, : formed in 1684 under papal 5,000 casualties THE EDICT OF NANTES, AGREED by Henry IV in 1598, was essential to ending the French Wars of This 19th-century illustration shows Friedrich Wilhelm |, elector of Brandenburg, welcoming French Protestant Huguenots to Berlin in 1685. : brutality—that it aroused not just : the indignation of Protestant | Europe but reinforced its alarmed the city in 1529, this was adirect _: authority, driving them south 7 Religion. Of necessity, it was a : perception that Louis XIV's France assault on the Christian West.In = across the Balkans. pS 50 compromise, and itsaw France's = had to be opposed at all costs. the event, the siege failed justas it ! Taiwan’s Tunging kingdom, a 73 substantial Protestant Huguenot The consequence of Louis XIV's had in 1529. But whereas 1529 : supporter of China's ousted Ming, : = £0 minority granted religious : obvious designs on Europe was had been the climax ofa series of |: had supported military assaults 2 35 12,000 toleration in return for accepting; the establishment in 1686 of the conquests that had seen the | against the Qing since 1661.By «9 casualties Henry as king. In October 1685, _ anti-French League of Augsburg, Ottomans sweep across Hungary, i 1683, negotiations toward a :2 20 with the Edict of Fontainebleau, subsequently known as the Grand the 1683 Ottoman assault wasa __ settlement had led nowhere and = Louis XIV revoked it. His decision : Alliance. The League was created frantic final attempt to regain : so the Kangxi Emperor (1654- i 10 was entirely logical. There was : initially by the newly confident former glories in the face of » 1722) launched the Qing’s military | practically no European state that © Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold | internal weakness. Confronted : might, securing a huge navaland - 0 permitted religious toleration. i (1640-1705)—vanquisher of the with renewed resistance, the : land victory over the Tunging at Qing Tunging Louis's absolutism clearly © Ottomans—and urged on by siege was broken in September __ the Battle of Penghu, resulting in - demanded nothing less than an » William III of Orange (1650-1792), © Battle of Penghu at Kahlenberg by a combined Imperial-Polish force led by the Polish king, Jan III Sobieski. The collapse of Ottoman rulein Hungary followed, with a Holy Thames Frost Fair, 1683-84 Frost fairs were a regular feature on the Thames River, in London, during the winters of the Little Ice Age, with tents and coaches on the ice. : their kingdom becoming part of © the Qing empire. : The climatic changes of the | Maunder Minimum, which had i begun in 1645 as a result of : reduced sunspot activity, had by : the 1680s initiated a particularly © cold period of the Little Ice Age : across the world, and global : temperatures had fallen by » several degrees. Amid its many : So seriously did the Qing take the : Tunging threat that it sent a huge © land and naval force, including more : than 200 ships, to guarantee victory. | bitter winters, that of 1683-84 : was considered by many to be the : worst. The Little Ice Age did not | end until the 19th century. Dissatisfied with the Treaty of © Nijmegen in 1679, Louis XIV strove : to extend France's frontiers at : the expense of the German states = and the Spanish Netherlands : with bids to occupy territory in : Flanders and the Rhineland—the » latter crucial in controlling trade on the Rhine. Using bluster, © threat, and bogus legal claims, he gained Alsace, Luxembourg, and key forts in Flanders, consolidated by the Treaty of Ratisbon in 1684 at the end of the brief War of the : Reunions of 1683-84. Now at the : peak of his power, Louis was 4 : determined to impose himself on Europe, but succeeded only in uniting Protestant and Catholic : Europe alike against him. officially sanctioned state ead THE N : ruler of the Dutch Republic. In R OF HUGUENOTS IT WAS CLAIMED FLED FRANCE AFTER LOUIS XIV ISSUED THE EDICT OF FONTAINEBLEAU religion, and that religion was Roman Catholicism. In every other respect, however, it was a disaster for France. The huge numbers of Huguenots who fled the country were among the most industrious in France, and they were eagerly embraced by those countries to which they emigrated, chiefly England, the Dutch Republic, and Prussia. Simultaneously, so naked an act of aggression was this against France’s Protestants—the policy was imposed with consistent : time, every western European : state bar Switzerland was ranged : against France. In 1685, the aging James I © (1633-1701), younger son of i Charles | and younger brother of : Charles II, brought a curious : incompetence to a brief : occupation of the English and : Scottish thrones. Determined to : reimpose Catholicism on a now : Protestant, parliamentary nation, © in less than three years he would : overturn the delicately cynical : political settlement of Charles Il. 8 ne S e So ot x Fs Cs ss 8 2" «ok Je Os aS oe pee” em Was WE oh ote Oar oF oe? ne” RS fin : a = Ae x — oe = of tot’ ates of? a aoe o oS x SPB? 2x9 oc 2 NP 2 SP a? ew RON es D2 CP OE Ae? BE ge ys 4 KO? oe eh gb eS Or Sark We koe x ooh Zo" Or 0 ar proc’ xo ee > wig sh yh go vor" ps FT _ geBeotheor Roe ec Oe! wrsea® we x ox goth ge were Ri 8? em oom aero Ce ae oe ¢ y 3 aw or w 228 44 | HAVE CONQUERED AN EMPIRE BUT | HAVE NOT BEEN ABLE TO CONQUER MYSELF. 99 Peter I (the Great), czar of Russia, reflecting on his rule, 1672-1725 ee 2 - es This Dutch painting shows William III's fleet departing the Netherlands for England at the start of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. IN OCTOBER 1688, DESPITE ALACK : of finances, Louis XIV's forces devastated the Rhineland Palatinate, in Germany, provoking the Nine Years’ War. His goal was : to force Leopold | to recognize French rule over the frontier territories previously annexed, as well as create a devastated strip of land that would be difficult for armies to cross to attack France. The next month, William III of Orange landed in England with an army of 15,000. These two events provoked a kind of volcanic eruption in European political history. Whereas Louis's invasion, almost immediately bogged down in winter mud, eventually led to an eclipse of French power in the face of a Europe united in opposition to him (see 1685-86], within three months William III had become not just the joint monarch of England (with his wife, Mary] but the leader of the pan-European, anti-French Protestant alliance. At stake was a fundamental clash over the nature of legitimate rule. ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727) In 1687, the English physicist Isaac Newton published the universal law of gravitation, one of the most remarkable of all scientific discoveries. It explained what holds the universe together: that all heavenly bodies exert a force called gravitas, or weight. Newton's work would dominate science’s views on the physical universe for almost 300 years. If Louis XIV's apparently absolute monarchy seemed the pattern by : which modern princes could most effectively exercise power, the accession of William III to the English and Scottish thrones made plain a radical alternative: © that Parliament was the ultimate arbiter of who should rule. No one : had disputed the right of William's ousted predecessor, James Il, to : the English throne. His clumsily active promotion of Catholicism, however, was wholly at odds with the strongly Protestant sympathies of the ruling elite, whose power was exercised through Parliament. It was a consortium of English magnates of all parties who invited William to take over the throne Nine Years’ War coin This German commemorative coin—a form of propaganda—shows the destruction of the Rhineland Palatinate by French troops during the Nine Years’ War. of England in what was, legal inventions aside, a direct deposition of a reigning monarch. The consequence, known as the Glorious Revolution of 1688, was a triumph of Parliamentary authority, and England would be immeasurably strengthened. However, for Louis XIV the result of the Nine Years’ War, which would be mainly fought around France's borders, but also in Ireland, North America, and India, would not be the one he had intended. Although France had fought well, it was crippled by economic woes, and eventually welcomed a settlement with the Grand Alliance, which too was financially exhausted. By 1697, although Louis would retain Alsace, he would have to return the province of Lorraine and all his gains on the east bank of the Rhine, as well as accept William as king of England anda string of Dutch fortresses along his border with the Spanish Netherlands. WHEN CONFRONTED WITH THE INVASION OF WILLIAM IIIIN 1688, James II of England abandoned an army he sent to confront William and fled to Louis XIV’s France. Charles || had been happy to be financed by Louis XIV, but he had disguised the fact. James || now actively reveled in French backing. In March 1689, he : landed with a French-financed army in Ireland, and attracting substantial Catholic support briefly threatened the new Dutch Protestant settlement. However, William's victory in 1690 at the Battle of the Boyne saw James back in France three days later. echo when German Calvinist : Jacob Leisler overthrew the | royal governor in May 1689 in the : name of William III. An English : force arrived to compel Leisler to i surrender in January 1691, and | he was executed for treason. Since 1682, a young Peter! : (1672-1725) had ruled Russia jointly with his disabled half- * brother Ivan V, but the real power : had been his sister and regent, » Sophia. The power struggle came i to a climax in 1689 when, gaining | the support of the Streltsy royal § guardsmen, he overthrew Sophia, © forcing her into a convent and : leaving him and lvan as co-czars. Henceforward, the Stuart Jacobite = claim to its thrones in Britain [see 1715 and 1745) would complicate French diplomacy, and seem unlikely to change political reality. In New York, the Glorious Revolution produced a short-lived © Leisler’s Rebellion : Jacob Leisler is shown swearing in : volunteers to support his overthrow : of the governor of New York. He : captured Fort James, Manhattan, } briefly renaming it Fort William. ne? < BN we ss oF of 6 Oy » 8 yar << yee Om ws R S Beye os Ny wrt a® ae” ee west go seit ao Re ow wor oh 19% or oe rs Foo a 9% 0h, = ot RS) x i < RO Ae gat és e : Bh ye ® oth Bcd AP es ot oO, Pay oh oo? Eo os 00" A Oe ah ee? WF oD, cts Ae” oh" gd Ad oS 08 WF ae, Fd 9% IF OH oo ee oe Ce OP? Re) ee Ce oe eo & See BONS ao gee ow ie oe Cee Co s RL) OF} wh of S ere? of x ae exe ai a ye P% oor ~ a oe se a. so ye re ~ oe w ee oS Wok” XS és w ) BS S 2 ‘ os wo) : me wes a : 3s g RS x < ~ oe Rig ae OS ow ne Or x ot oe ON on. a. qe os Pry ws yF gor as in oe rome gy Rs Roe Ron Cas yor ge wet pO eo ost sF ot 7 we 28 ore gor Oe NP u Seay ES: ss © eye WW ST ore oY a oS Ss got © AS ve so ; x Oe $ a vei RON a yyek \2 ROR AP gs WTO Ge! er at ait OH Pe : ROR Seta yore? a Caen Sr Fo Fg? s we ee ere? Wo aero we Re w « soon ys? os oi o 3 ne wo cS re & ES 2G) 1450-1749 | REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION THE RISE AND FALL OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN AN ENDURING POWER THAT DOMINATED IN EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST FOR NEARLY 500 YEARS The long decline of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century disguised the fact that for 450 years after its emergence in about 1300, it was not just one of the most dynamic and sophisticated polities in the world, but also one of the largest. It dwarfed its European and Middle Eastern rivals. At its height, toward the end of the 17th century, Caldiran and much of the Middle East and North the Ottoman Empire stretched from the gates of Africa was conquered. Suleiman the Magnificent Vienna to the Indian Ocean, and from the Crimea (r. 1520-66) expanded Ottoman territories deep to Algiers. Though the Mongol leader Timur had into Hungary and almost as far as the Atlantic. checked Ottoman ambitions in the early 15th Faced with such potency, the Christian West could century, once Murad | took the throne in 1413, the do little. Enormously rich, technologically advanced, expansion program was vigorously renewed. His and buoyed by its leadership of the Muslim world, son, Mehmed II (r. 1451-81], extended Ottoman Ottoman power seemed irresistible. The empire's MOROCCO rule across the Balkans and seized Constantinople decline after the failure of the siege of Vienna in (Istanbul) in a blaze of conquest. Under Selim | 1683 was the result less of internal weakness than (r. 1512-20), the Safavids were contained at of the growing strength of its European opponents. FORMIDABLE OPPONENTS —= Size of the The Ottoman state began as a small frontier principality : Ottoman Empire preying on Christian Byzantium. Under a succession of By the turn of the ‘16th-century Empire f i Hi ‘ \ 20th century, the At its peak, the Ottoman Empire 14th-century warrior-sultans, a series of rapid conquests Ottoman Empire had was not just a land power—its were launched, notably at Kosovo in 1389, when a combined shrunk to a third of navy dominated the eastern Christian—Balkan force was defeated. Bayezid | (r. 1389-1402] ‘ 0.7 the size it been three Mediterranean and the maritime centuries earlier. routes with the Indian Ocean. It exploited this victory by annexing Bulgaria and invading ren Modern Turkey is a challenged not merely European Hungary. Ottoman success was based on a highly trained SQMILES fraction of that. but its Middle Eastern rivals, too: army. The most feared troops, the janissaries, were recruited Mamluk Egypt, conquered in 1517, and Safavid Pe F from the conquered peoples of the Balkans, converted to 301,384 sq miles Sich ena 2h Islam. In addition, Ottoman artillery in the 15th and 16th KEY sophisticated state. @ 1683 ©) 1916 @ Modern Turkey centuries was among the most destructive in the world. HOLY Population of the ROMAN Ottoman Empire EMPIRE HUNGARY 4 Although the " population did not reach its peak until the first half of the 19th century, by then the empire was clearly in decline as a politicaland military force. Black Sea Arabian AFRICA Peninsula 1481 From a small nucleus c. 1300, the = 7 Ottomans went on to conquer a vast area, eas 15 20 25 30 covering much of Anatolia and the area Empire at 1300 POPULATION (MILLIONS) around the Black Sea by 1481. Empire at 1481 RUSSIAN EMPIRE POLAND- ; KHANATE OF LITHUANIA ®Kiev THE CRIMEA HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE JEDISAN Astrakhan @ Esztergom Khotin Vienna@ (Gran) bd MOLDAVIA Koszeg(Giins) Buda "Ray, ah ° ®Bender HUNGARY Sy, | FRANCE VENETIAN REPUBLIC 2 Mohacs NIA Kata Caucasus Szigétvar (Kefe) e WALLACHIA , Bélgrade Black Sea GEORGIAN a: STATES Adrianople Trebizond ~A_ ®Kars ™™ 6 Pee) (Edirne) Nakhichevan : REPUBLIC es eg a ; Corsi OF RAGUSA =~ : = eS e Baru < Tabriz a “Constantinople Caldiran y ®Tehran Sardinia os @H. d ANATOLIA Marj Baie amadan , YAEEDE Isfahan ® SYRIA 2 ‘WK Algiers i ‘ Sp, mouse ALGIERS aes RA, = Damascus Za yy Crete Tripoli ‘1 TUNIS # Jerusalem TRIPOLI aS Arabian vente Peninsula 44 THEPRESENT =~ : KEY TERROR OF THE WORLD. 99 Attributed to a European ambassador c. 1600 Ottoman Empire and vassals 1512 Conquests of Selim | 1512-20 Conquests of Suleiman | 1520-66 Ottoman conquests 1566-1639 Major Ottoman campaigns ® Mecca EUROPE EUROPE AUSTRO- HUNGARIAN EMPIRE Black Sea Black Sea PERSIA 3 PERSIA , SYRIA IRAQ NEJD \\_TRANSJORDAN Arabian Peninsula Arabian Peninsula Turkey 1923 French mandate AFRICA British mandate 1913 Ottoman power had dwindled. Greece, Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro were now independent, and other European powers had taken over North Africa and the Black Sea 1923 The Ottomans’ remaining Arab territories were divided between Britain and France. Turkey was reduced to its Anatolian heartlands, sparking nationalist conflict with Greece and Armenia Fort William, shown here in the 1700s, was built after the English East India Company moved its main Bengal trading station to Calcutta in 1690. THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY had been a presence in Bengal since the early 17th century. Seeking greater security for their trade, a new base, Fort William, named after William Ill, was established in 1690 in what is now Calcutta. The fort, continually enlarged and improved, would be critical to the later British dominance in India. In 1690, English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) wrote An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. It marked Locke as a key thinker in the Western philosophical tradition, above all for his assertion that knowledge of the world came through experience of it, and that the basis = : ensured his influence in debates - about liberty and reason in : 18th-century France and America. of this understanding was reasoned, empirical (based on observation) thought. Reinforcing many of his established ideas about property rights, religious Orange Jacobite forces of forces of William II! James | 35,000 TROOPS ‘ 4 \ © orange Jacobite 4 500 300 casualties casualties 4 Battle of the Boyne, Ireland The Orange army of William III inflicted a decisive defeat on the Jacobites of James Il, giving the lie to William's “bloodless revolution.” : Philosopher John Locke : John Locke contended that there is : a contract between monarch and = people under which the monarch : can be overthrown if he abuses it. toleration, and monarchy, it also The turnip, a basic root crop of the agricultural revolution of the 17th century, was first cultivated : in England in about 1690. The : Dutch, to make best use of their. » limited lands, had already » discovered that crop rotation {arable crops alternated with root » crops rather than leaving fields i fallow] not only improved fertility : but provided food for sheep whose : manure furthered productivity. On July 12, 1690, William III's victory over the deposed Catholic _ James || at the Battle of the Boyne, in Ireland, was decisive : in maintaining the Protestant i supremacy that had been : established there by the Glorious : Revolution of 1688. In Ireland, _ brutal sectarian violence would : continue for centuries. = oe RY ry ~ e? SNe, & ot™ os aot gor soon Sse soon RY ask 36 "305 oe eh ai i ery aX re =a Oe ae ees e. ) Os ed oye coe oo aot oe test Foe oh Cs Roan Ragin oF 0 ox ho oe oct gy as ho wre! cA ss és Cars < oo oe eo” fe as ie AS o se 2 ae 3 3 oe oe = oe i. Cg mo a 5 rw oe RS ont 3 SO Rs G Se Ry an) gt ww perce we Ses" z ae 2 oo" awe “ SF ot 233 44 THE GREATEST COMFORTS AND LASTING PEACE ARE OBTAINED, WHEN ONE ERADICATES SELFISHNESS FROM WITHIN. 99 Guru Gobind Singh, 10th Sikh Master, 1697 An engraving depicting 16-year-old Philip, duke of Anjou, being recognized as Philip V, king of Spain, on October 2, 1700. THE NINE YEARS’ WAR THAT HAD SEEN FRANCE TAKE ON the Grand Alliance of England, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, and the Dutch Republic was ended by the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. It established that all territory taken since 1679 was to be returned. The Ottoman defeat at the Siege of Vienna in 1683 marked not just the beginning of a protracted Ottoman decline, but the emergence of Habsburg Austria as a European power to challenge France, England, and the Dutch Republic. After 1683, Austrian Imperial armies pursued the retreating Ottomans south across the Balkans, a process that climaxed at the Battle of Zenta, in Serbia in September 1697. Under the Italo-French general Eugene of Savoy [1663-1736], who : MUGHAL EMPIRE The crushing of a Sikh revolt in the Punjab in 1699 saw the Mughal Empire at its zenith. From its Afghan heartlands, it had grown under Akbar, taking all but the tip of India’s subcontinent by the end of the 17th century. The harsh rule of Aurangzeb saw many revolts, and the later rise of the Marathas [see 1720] left the Mughals as puppets. KEY Akbar’s domains, 1556 Additional areas held by Mughals at Akbar’s death, 1605 Additional areas acquired up to the death of Aurangzeb, 1707 ) Treaty of Ryswick | The treaty was | Nieuwburg, the : William of Orange, : in Ryswick, in the : Dutch Republic. signed at the palace of Huis ter country house of was rapidly emerging as one : of the foremost commanders : in Europe, an Imperial army ' surprised the Ottomans as they : attempted to cross the Tisa River. : The Ottomans were massacred: about 10,000 drowned, and a : further 20,000 were killed in battle. The Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 confirmed the Austrian INDIAN OCEAN : gains, including the gradual : absorption of Hungary by the » Austrian crown. 2 In July 1698, English military : engineer Thomas Savery » (1650-1715) registered a patent » for “a new invention for raiseing © of water... of great use and _ advantage for drayning mines.” © Basic forms of steam power had : existed since the 1st century CE, : but none of these had ever been © translated into working machines. : Savery’s steam engine was i basic, prone to violent explosions, and unable to pump water more » than 33ft (10m) below it, meaning : that in mines it had to be installed, : dangerously, underground. It i was only in 1721 when Thomas » Newcomen (1664-1729), working : with Savery, produced his | atmospheric engine, that a viable = commercial use was found. Yet, | the real potential of steam as an H engine of industrialization would © not be realized until the invention © by the Scot, James Watt (1736- © 1819), in 1769, of a separate : condenser, and then only with the | backing of English businessman : Matthew Boulton [see pp.274-75). THE DEATH IN 1700 OF CHARLES Il, : the childless king of Spain, caused : £ following July, he inflicted a : similarly crushing defeat ona » combined Polish-Saxon force at : Klissow in Poland. With Sweden that French power would preserve : : bold campaigning, whatever the i odds against him, had apparently a major crisis when he nominated Philip of Anjou [1683-1746], the grandson of Louis XIV of France, as his successor. Charles hoped the Spanish Empire if ruled by a Bourbon. Louis accepted the vast increase in family prestige and French influence, but opposition to the succession and its increase in French power grew hugely. The accession in 1697 of the 15-year-old Charles XII (1682-1718) to the throne of Sweden was the signal for Sweden's Baltic rivals, Denmark, Saxony, Poland, and, increasingly, Russia, to attempt to end Swedish pre-eminence. In fact, in the conflict that followed, the Great Northern War of 1700-21, Charles, “the Swedish Meteor,” would prove himself a general of genius. In the four months from August 1700, he successively defeated the Danes and then, over on the other side of the Baltic, at Narva, Stradivarius violin The Stradivarius violin, made by Italian Antonio Stradivari, entered a golden age in 1700. These violins were larger than earlier models. annihilated a Russian army four times the size of his own. The never more dominant, Charles's been wholly vindicated. From about 1700, a major : development in European culture began to take shape: a musical tradition, part courtly, part church-based, known as the High Baroque. It evolved from later Renaissance music, above alin Italy, but developed to reach a new level of polyphonic tonal and instrumental complexity. It was characterized by both new and more elaborated musical forms: the concerto, fugue, oratorio, prelude, cantata, and opera. It was made possible by new forms of existing instruments: the organ, harpsichord, and, above all, violin. It depended also on composers of genius, such as Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) and George Handel (1685-1759), and on amore extensive world of courtly and private patronage of them. Jethro Tull’s seed drill is shown here being operated manually. It sowed seeds in rows, performing work that previously required several laborers. A REVOLUTION IN AGRICULTURE BEGAN IN 1701 when English agriculturalist Jethro Tull (1674-1741) created the horse- drawn seed drill [see pp.250-51). A major time- and labor-saving device, it sowed great numbers of seeds in neat rows. Although not taken up at once, it later proved popular with large landowners and would lay the basis of modern productive agriculture. No sooner had the Nine Years’ War ended than Europe's powers found themselves in another lengthy and costly war. The surprise choice of Philip, duke of Anjou, as King Philip V of Spain (see 1700), greatly disturbed the European balance of power, and Louis XIV did nothing to discourage fears of a Franco— Spanish military alliance. He took over military duties in Philip's lands, moving troops into the Spanish Netherlands to defend them from the English and the Dutch. With renewed confidence in France's European status, Louis then recognized James Ill, son of the exiled James Il (1633-1701), as king of England. With England and the Dutch Republic backing Austria’s claims to the Spanish throne—in the form of their candidate, Archduke Charles of Austria—armed opposition to France was now guaranteed. The War of the Spanish Succession that began in 1701 saw a Grand Alliance oppose the unification of the French and Spanish thrones. It would last until 1713-14 and redraw the map of the continent and the world. nS ANGLO-DUTCH FRANCO-SPANISH FORCES FORCES Battle of Vigo Bay, October 1702 In an early encounter in the War of the Spanish Succession, 25 ships of an Anglo-Dutch fleet defeated a Franco-Spanish fleet at Vigo Bay. Freelance Samurai warriors known as ronin emerged from the Japanese civil wars of the 14th and 15th centuries. In 1651, they engaged in rebellion and continued to instigate dissent into the 18th century. In 1701, a respected lord, Asano Nugatory, was forced to commit suicide after assaulting an official who had insulted him. In revenge, 47 of his samurai became ronin and murdered the official, an act normally punished by execution. But because Confucianism taught that it is honorable to avenge a lord's death, they were allowed to commit suicide in turn. The kingdom of Prussia—later the forerunner of the German state—was proclaimed in 1701 when Frederick |, duke of Prussia and elector of Brandenburg, was crowned the first “king in Prussia,” in Konigsberg Castle. Revenge of the 47 ronin This color woodcut is one of a series an the 47 ronin uprising, the most famous incident of the samurai code of honor, bushido. eam f 45, 6 » SN se oF 9 he so a ne dh o® Xoo st oS Kor ae” ve =a ge as SY es ote tie eS rs wrod ye So x oo - $ 3 3" > 0 ae : Soe op. VS oe? won Or we oF 3 pr 39 re ios Ros Ry e* ee Ao aoe 9 rs Ry Cn Fe ee? oe A®? 3? 08 poco nt RCs cy SOP woh ye Qe As Qo” of Sa AOE SC) OF ot en gh se on OO yuo CoS ws 3 Sm SS) ee w RET RE (vs 235 This modern photograph shows Halley's Comet, named after the British astronomer Edmond Halley, who was the first to determine that the comet returned periodically, every 76 years. THE BATTLE OF BLENHEIM, fought in 1704 near the village of Blindheim on the Danube in Bavaria, Germany, ended in victory for the Duke of Marlborough and the Grand Alliance [see 1701), and turned the War of the Spanish Succession in favor of the Grand Alliance. The battle halted a Franco-Bavarian march on Vienna, and Bavaria played no further part in the war. Meanwhile, the Gibraltar peninsula on the Spanish mainland was seized by a combined Dutch-English force in 1704; Gibraltar was ceded perpetually to Britain in 1713. Victor of Blenheim The Duke of Marlborough [in red] sits astride his horse in this tapestry, now hanging in his eventual home, Blenheim Palace, England. 236 THE NUMBER OF POCUMTUCKS AMONG THE RAIDERS AT DEERFIELD In Tunisia to the southeast, the Husaynid dynasty was established in 1705 when Al-Husayn ibn ‘Ali (1669-1740) was recognized by the Ottoman sultan as governor of the province. The Husaynid dynasty lasted until Tunisia gained independence in 1957. In North America, Deerfield, Massachusetts, was the scene in 1704 of a massacre of English colonists by a combined force News from home : Published weekly, The Boston News-Letter provided English : colonists in America with news of England's political events and wars. of French-Canadians and : American Indians. Also in 1704, The Boston News-Letter, North America’s first continuously published newspaper, appeared, : largely funded by the British government. In 1706, the most decisive event in the War of the Spanish Succession occurred in North Italy, where the Duke of Savoy, allied : with Austria and Britain, was defending his territory against French invasion and siege of the capital, Turin. The French were crushed when the Duke of Savoy and Prince Eugene broke through : French lines and routed the army, driving them out of North Italy. Also in 1706, Spanish conquistador Juan de Uribarri claimed southeastern Colorado, an area populated by warring American Indian tribes, and joined it to Spanish New Mexico. In England, the first steam engine using moving parts was built in 1704 by Thomas Newcomen (1663-1729) and Thomas Savery (see 1698]. The first working Newcomen engine was installed to pump water from amine in Staffordshire in 1712. Edmond Halley (1656-1742), English mathematician and astronomer, published A Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets in 1705, in which he described the parabolic orbits of 24 comets. He proved that three sightings, many decades apart, were of a single comet—the comet that is now known as Halley's Comet—and determined that this comet returns to the solar system every 76 years. my 20,000 casualties 56 | 12,000 casualties 42 TROOPS (IN THOUSANDS) France Allies Battle of Blenheim losses About 112,000 troops took part in the Battle of Blenheim, with 20,000 French casualties but almost half as many from Britain and its allies. emperor Aurangzeb hunting nilgai. THE DEATH IN 1707 OF AURANGZEB, sixth Mughal emperor of India (b. 1618), marked the start of the decline of the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb's successors squandered the dynasty’s fortunes while losing control of regional governors, who went on to built their own empires. Aurangzeb, disturbed by the growing power of the Sikh Guru Gobind Singh, had a b GURU GOBIND SINGH (1666-1708) The tenth and last guru of Sikhism, Gobind Singh was a powerful figure in Indian history. In 1699 he transformed Sikhism by creating the Khalsa (Pure), a community of the faith that trained as warriors; now the Khalsa embraces all Sikhs. Aurangzeb considered coming to terms with Gobind Singh, but the rajas of the Sivalik Hills remained hostile, and Gobind Singh was assassinated in 1708. s se RK tas RY ees oO provinces of Scania, Halland, and Blekinge to Sweden in 1700 but still had hopes of seizing them back. Assuming Sweden to be weakened by the Battle of Poltava, Denmark found pretexts to declare war on October 18, 1709. In November, a large Danish invasion force landed in Sweden virtually unopposed. However, by February 1710, Sweden had managed to amass 16,000 men, and this force defeated the Danes in the Battle of Helsingborg. Denmark lost 7,500 } men in the battle and thereafter A abandoned hope of regaining its former possessions. In 1710, French settlers of the Canadian east coast region of Arcadia (now Nova Scotia} endured a third, and this time successful, British attempt to seize Port Royal. The victory secured Britain their first French colonial possession and helped to obstruct French colonization of Canada for years to come. German chinoiserie This 18th-century Meissen porcelain vase has moldings picked out in gold leaf. Its form and decorative motifs were inspired by imported Chinese porcelain. Ss ee Oy oe eo oe Ae eh ov Pro” AW oo cyt Rite. 32 FP 2? io OCS NG a of 1X x0? Ci SR BF Fo sc NS on ¢ Oa s s RY te ew 3 ai O80 Oe AVY 6 oct 2 PL? 9 8 Pook cana Pr nv O® go 9% ro ‘a xe ew oe OF B® 2 se oh? ad Cor ° BP cP Go" e 23, 1450-1749 REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION Perhaps the most surprising fact in the history of navigation is that, until the 18th century, it was impossible for explorers and mariners to determine their position accurately. Today, thanks to developments in navigational technology, it is possible to pinpoint locations to within a few meters. The earliest sailors had no means of accurate navigation other than by sight, relying on landmarks along coastlines, judging distances and directions from the positions of the Sun, Moon, and stars, and using simple sounding devices, such as weighted lines, to keep ships from running aground. The invention of instruments such as the magnetic compass, astrolabe, and sextant John Harrison English clackmaker John Harrison was the first to make accurate timepieces that enabled longitude to be calculated with precision. enabled direction and latitude to be gauged reasonably accurately (by measuring the angle of the Sun or a star above the horizon) but the problem remained of how to determine longitude. ACCURATE NAVIGATION Calculating longitude depends on comparing local time with “universal” time (the time at an agreed location, which is now Greenwich, England). Each hour's difference equates to 15 degrees’ difference in longitude. Calculating longitude therefore relies on accurate timepieces, which did not exist until John Harrison developed his chronometer in the 18th century. The next major advances in navigation did not come until the 20th century, with the advent of the gyroscopic compass, radar, and, from the 1990s, of the global positioning system (GPS). 464 ONE OF THE MOST EXQUISITE MOVEMENTS EVER MADE. jy William Hogarth, English artist, on Harrison's H1 chronometer, from Analysis of Beauty, 1753 3000-1500 BCE Early sounding Ancient Egyptians y use sounding reeds to i measure water depth and gauge their position from coastal landmarks. 12th-dynasty sailing boat c. 150 Ptolemy's maps A Roman based in Egypt, Ptolemy creates maps using a grid system that influenced navigational maps until the 17th century. Ptolemy's map 11th century Dead reckoning Sand clocks are used for dead reckoning: measuring the time traveled and speed to estimate a vessel's position. c. 1100 The compass Chinese sailors are the first to use a magnetic compass [which uses a magnetized needle to show the direction of north and south) for navigation. H1 chronometer LATITUDE Latitude lines (parallels) run horizontally on a map and are measured in degrees north or south of the equator. Each degree is about 69 miles (111 km] apart. LONGITUDE Longitude lines (meridians) run vertically on a map and are measured in degrees east or west of Greenwich, England. They meet at the poles and are farthest apart at the equator. 1300-1500 Navigational charts Portolan charts of the Mediterranean and European coastlines allow sailors to navigate from port to port using compass bearings. iner’s compass winding handle Portolan chart c. 1480 The astrolabe Sailors start to use astrolabes to estimate latitude by measuring the angle of the Sun ora particular star above the horizon. Mariner's astrolabe seconds hand — = Harrison's H1 chronometer John Harrison's first “sea clock" was the H1, which he made to solve the longitude problem—how to measure time accurately enough at sea to calculate longitude. However, the H1 was impractically large, a problem Harrison solved in 1759 with his H4 chronometer. minute hand 1735-59 calendar hand, ve The chronometer indicating date John Harrison makes the first marine Dfthe mone chronometer (the H1) in 1735. He then makes improved versions, culminating in the H4 in 1759. 1907 1930s-40s Late 20th century Gyroscopic compass Radar Global positioning American Elmer Sperry The invention of radar systems The introduction of satellite-based GPS makes it possible to pinpoint locations and navigate to within invents the gyroscopic compass, a major advance for accurate navigation because it always points to true north and is not subject to deviation. Ship's compass Radarscope a few yards. makes it possible to determine an object's position even when it cannot be seen GPS chart plotter 230 44 RIGHT IS RIGHT, EVEN IF EVERYONE IS AGAINST IT: AND WRONG IS WRONG, EVEN IF EVERYONE IS FOR IT. 99 William Penn, founder of Pennsylvania, 1681 On completion, St. Paul's Cathedral dominated the north bank of the Thames River. It remained the tallest building in London until 1962. IN AN EXTENSION OF THE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION (see 1701-03) in South America, a squadron of French ships attacked : Portuguese-held Rio de Janeiro, incapacitated Portuguese ships in the harbor, and only spared the city’s defenses from destruction on payment of a ransom. French morale, which had been ata low since their withdrawal from the Battle of Malplaquet (see 1709), was raised by this proof that i Losses at Rio de Janeiro i i Smallpox epidemic : Caught unawares by a French naval i a In the South African H 2 French long-range naval power = attack in Rio de Janeiro harbor, Cape, smallpox had not been extinguished. | Portuguese ships tried to escape. + ravaged the native Khoisan In North America, the © Three drifted aground, and one was : population, killing nine people Tuscarora War beganin North = destroyed by its crew. ) for every one survivor. Carolina between Tuscarora : American Indians and settlers + moved to counter the uprising = : ON 7 JUNE 1712, PENNSYLVANIA, from Britain, Germany, and the organized by Mirwais Khan Hotak : under moral pressure from its Netherlands. The settlers and » {see 1709-10), but the Safavid Quaker population, freed all the northern Tuscarora American i army and its leader, Khosru Khan, : slaves in the state, an early step in Indians began to kidnap the © were annihilated, and Afghan : the abolition of slavery. However, Tuscarora in the south, sellthem = independence was secured. : Queen Anne reversed the decision into slavery, and appropriate their | In December 1711, St. Paul’s : in the following year. Quaker lands. The southern Tuscarora : Cathedral, London's most iconic : state-founder and slaver trader retaliated in September with : building, was completed. : William Penn (1644-1718) was not widespread attacks on : Designed by Christopher Wren, it | himself an opponent of slavery. settlements in which hundreds was the fourth church to occupy | In South Africa’s Cape region, of settlers were killed. : its site; its predecessor was badly © Dutch sailors infected with In Asia, the Persian Safavid : damaged in the Great Fire of © smallpox inadvertently caused rulers of western Afghanistan London in 1666. The building had : a catastrophic decimation of the | the first triple dome in the world: a light, timber-framed outer : dome, supported by a hidden : brick cone, and inside it, the : inner dome that is visible from : the interior. : native Khoisan people in 1713. : The disease rapidly spread from © laundrywomen infected by the sailors’ dirty linen to the wider : population because no one had | immunity or medicine. The epidemic killed 90 percent Anend to war This painting from the French royal almanac for 1714 shows signatories of the Treaty of Utrecht, which ended the War of the Spanish Succession. Attack on Rio de Janeiro French corsair René Duguay- Trouin’s ships enter Rio de Janeiro harbor to salvage French honor— and profit at the same time. § S be x Ss Se) 1 S s Br os Ao 7 a P > ao Ae ® a oF 5 F 08h ase? » ae 9 al ne a? rw’ Moh go" oe tS Ee Pipa as go acm eee a a rw’ ae os o8 z os geo, S we ao? gor o aa oO we tie Pr OF 0 vk so’ pr ge” he CCC) 2 Fco so ‘ J s wf Bs FF ro ye ores a ye Se Core ot QS 6? ce? oO =e Sie e So oe ac? hc” Wh ae s ? Soe we iP x o oA od eo” é Re) cy sh on) Be eo we con 3 yh 02 Yee Roe Boro S Pe. Can Fe eh Fa oF oP os Ae td 5 ac? sh Naas FO ge WY ce? ce Xd os ee a ar o \\ x cs io Fat Ce Oe or BO, xe gO pO oO As 48% 6% Wy? ae oe “ pero eos oe 29 oo ow MY SS te es oe oo ar we FoF oreo cer PD ANP oe * x oH gf’ SX? oo SO DE SO Cr eo eo a we? Pacer oe Ne) pe coh ¢ OO oo re s x 464 SLAVES WHO ARE DISABLED FROM WORKING _..SHALL BE...PROVIDED FOR BY THEIR MASTERS. 99 From the Louisiana Code Noir, 1724 EUROPEAN SUCCESS in procuring slaves in West Africa for transporting to the new colonies depended on the enthusiastic cooperation of certain tribes. In Dahomey, in what is now the Republic of Benin, King Agadja (r. 1708-40) presided over a culture of enslavement and human sacrifice. His conquest of neighboring Allada in 1723 provided a ready source of captives for sale, and by 1724 Dahomey had become the Europeans’ principal source of slave labor. In 1724, the Code Noir, King Louis XIV of France's extensive definition of the conditions of slavery, was introduced in the : French territory of Louisiana, North America. The code was partly intended to give slaves basic protection from their masters—all were to be given : food and clothes, for example— » but it also legitimized cruel © punishments: runaway slaves : were to be branded, their ears cut © off, and, after a second offence, : crippled by having their : hamstrings cut. Also in 1724, the disintegrating : Mughal Empire saw the Indian : state of Oudh gain independence © under Saadat Ali Khan (c. 1680- 1739). He founded the Moghul : Awadh dynasty, which ruled until its power was seized by the : British in the early 19th century. @ ws oa oe od? a i PX y™ Sg wo oe au w AP So s Fo 02 NS Abr ae ot Paige’ eg ro gee gt aS ad e an an What oak 36 oe xe? we os" & ates Cees * WE os 243 Peter the Great's Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, founded in 1725, was rehoused in this building of 1783-85 on the Neva River. 44 YOU ARE NOW TRAVELING INTO THE PARADISE OF THE SCHOLARS. 99 Caspar Wolff, German scientist, praising the Academy of Sciences ina letter to mathematician Leonhard Euler, c. 1779 THE TREATY OF THE HAGUE (see 1720) did not end rivalries between the major European powers. In 1725, Austria signed the Treaty of Vienna with Spain, gaining trading advantages in the colonies for its Imperial Ostend Company; in exchange, Austria abandoned all claims to the Spanish throne and also promised to help Spain recapture Gibraltar. In 1726, Britain embarked on an attempt to blockade Spanish treasure ships at Porto Bello, CATHERINE | (1684-1727) The orphaned daughter of Lithuanian peasants, the future wife of Peter the Great was born Marta Skowronska. She was secretly married to Peter in 1707, and she reigned as Russia's first female monarch from his death until her own. In her reign, she was supported by the Supreme Privy Council, which wanted to deny power to the aristocracy. 244 : Panama, but withdrew without : success in 1727 after severe losses from disease. Emboldened by its promise © of Austrian support, which was negated by a secret pact made : between Britain and Austria, | Spain besieged Gibraltar in : 1727, an act that precipitated the Anglo-Spanish War. The : four-month siege failed, costing Spain 1,400 men to British : casualties of 300. The war ended : with the Treaty of Seville in 1729. In Russia, the St. Petersburg i Academy of Sciences was founded in 1725 by Peter the Great (1672-1725). The most _ eminent scholars of all disciplines were invited to work there—for : example, German embryologist | Caspar Wolff (1733-94) offered : Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler a 200-rouble salary as an i enticement, which he accepted. : To the southeast, the Afghan : shah of Persia, Mahmud Hotaki 1 [see 1721-22), died in 1725. He = was succeeded by his cousin, © Ashraf Khan (d. 1730), who may : have murdered him. By then, Persian lands were being encroached upon by Ottoman forces, who were linked to the previous regime by an Ottoman- Safavid alliance. However, Ashraf Khan defeated the Ottomans in a battle near Isfahan at Kermanshah, and peace was eventually declared at Hamadan, Persia, in 1727. Satirical novel Clergyman and writer Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) first published Gulliver's Travels in 1726. This edition of the satire on humanity was published in the 1860s. Coffee in Brazil This 19th-century woodcut shows a Brazilian coffee plantation. From small beginnings in 1727, Brazil grew into the world's largest coffee producer. Also in 1727, the Treaty of Kyakhta was signed by Imperial Russia and the Chinese Qing Empire; it remained the basis of relations between the two until the mid-19th century. Mongolia’s northern border was mapped and agreed on, and routes established for trade in furs and tea. The late 1720s saw the start of coffee-growing in the Caribbean and South America. Seedlings were first brought to Martinique around 1720, and in 1727 the king of Portugal sent to French Guinea for seeds. His envoy, Francisco de Mello Palheta, persuaded the French governor's wife to provide seeds and seedlings, and these enabled the Portuguese to start a coffee industry in Brazil. The Shinto gate [torii) at the entrance to the Itsukushima Shrine, Japan. THE RUSSIAN EMPEROR PETER THE GREAT was determined to discover the full extent of his lands to the east. A Danish seaman, Vitus Bering (1681- 1741), was commissioned to follow the Siberian coast northward fram the Kamchatka Peninsula, and in 1728 Bering sailed into the narrow strait, now named after him, that separates Siberia and Alaska. By sailing farther north, Bering established that Siberia reaches its eastward limit at the strait. Bering suspected that there must be land farther east, but it was only during a second voyage, in 1741, that he first saw the coast of Alaska across the strait. On the Indian subcontinent, the Maratha people, after nearly a decade of consolidating their power under Bajirao (see 1720), struck out into the Deccan region surrounding their homeland. In 1728, in the Battle of Palkhed, they confronted rival prince Asaf Jah | of Hyderabad [also known as Nizam-ul-Mulk} who had been laying claim to Maratha leadership and who was refusing to pay them chauth (a tribute tax). In a strategic masterstroke, the Marathas cornered the nizam’s army in a waterless zone, where it refused to fight. In consequence, the nizam abandoned his leadership claim and payment of chauth was resumed. The year 1729 was a pivotal point in trading relations between China and the West because the Qing Yongzheng emperor banned almost all importation of opium. Chinese goods were in high demand in Europe, but the Chinese were unimpressed by European goods and accepted payment only in silver—which Britain, in particular, had to obtain at exorbitant cost. In the early 18th century, British traders had begun to trade Indian opium for Chinese goods, and there was soon a growing number of addicted Chinese that greatly reduced Europe's silver requirement. European opium smugglers remained a major problem for China into the 19th century. Also in 1729, after more than a decade of mistreatment, Natchez American Indians killed more than 200 French settlers at Fort Rosalie, Mississippi. However, by 1731 the French, assisted by the Choctaw people, were to retaliate by enslaving a large Bering Strait This satellite image shows the : Bering Strait, a 56-mile (96-km) stretch of water that separates Asia and North America. number of Natchez for work on Caribbean plantations. The short-lived Ottoman Tulip Period [1718-30] was ended by a rebellion against unpopular : measures led by a janissary (soldier), Patrona Halil, that caused Sultan Ahmed III to be : supplanted by Mahmud I. The : Tulip Period was one of stability in the Ottoman Empire and was marked by increased interest in Western ways. Just as Western Europe had been fascinated by tulips in the 17th century, the Ottoman court became equally obsessed. Ottoman architecture and art were invigorated, but high prices for tulips and tulip bulbs distorted the economy. The instatement of Mahmud | in 1730 brought an end to the Tulip Period, but Halil was strangled in front of the sultan in 1731 for overreaching himself. In Japan, whose population had been ruled by the Tokugawa shogunate since 1603, there was a resurgence of the Shinto religion. Beginning around 1730, it was fueled by the writings of scholars such as Kada no Azunamaro (1669-1736) and Kamo no Mabuchi (1697-1769). The Shinto scholars rejected Chinese and Buddhist influences and sought to identify a purely Japanese spiritual identity. Shintoism was reinstated as the national religion of Japan more than a century later in 1868. Meanwhile, the Arabian state of Oman was expanding its dominions in Africa. The Portuguese-held Kenyan city 46 ...IN LESS THAN TWO HOURS THEY 180 CASUALTIES 2 ) Men Women Children Massacre at Fort Rosalie On November 28, 1729, Natchez American Indians killed 242 settlers at Fort Rosalie, Mississippi, in retaliation for years of mistreatment. of Mombasa and the island of Pemba had been captured by the Omanis in 1698, and by 1730 they had driven the Portuguese from the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts and gained control of the island of Zanzibar (now part of Tanzania). In West Africa, Islamic Fulbe, or Fulani, people began to unify into larger communities in what is now known as f MASSACRED MORE THAN 200 OF THE FRENCH. 99 Father le Petit, missionary, in a letter to Father D'Avaugour, Procurator of the Missions in North America, 1730 the Fulbe Revolution. The first such state was Bondu, in Guinea, formed in the late 17th century. Then came Futa Jallon (centered in Guinea but sprawling over neighboring territories), where the Islamic Fulbe took power from the existing leaders and non- Islamic Fulbe people. A confederation of provinces was formally created in 1735 with its capital at Timbo, Guinea. Other areas that were profoundly affected by the Fulbe Jihad—as the seizure of power was termed— included the formerly declining Bornu Empire [in present-day Nigeria}, the fortunes of which underwent a significant revival. In 1731, formerly independent Dahomey in West Africa finally accepted the suzerainty of the © Yoruba Oyo Empire [present-day Nigeria). The Yoruba had invaded and defeated them after a protracted and bitterly fought campaign in 1728, but resistance in Dahomey did not end until 1748. Opium pipe and poppy This traditional Chinese opium pipe has a knob- shaped bowl in which the drug (dried latex from the opium poppy] is vaporized when the bowl is heated. OBSESSED WITH CREATING a strong, independent state, Frederick William | (r. 1713-40), the “Soldier King” of Prussia, instituted compulsory military service: every young man had to serve in the military for three months of each year. In this way, the Prussian army became the fourth-largest in Europe, with 60,000 soldiers, despite having the twelfth-largest population. In America, the state of Georgia was founded in 1732, becoming the last of the Thirteen Colonies established by Britain on the Atlantic coast. Named after Britain’s King George II, the new state was intended to strengthen the British presence in the south. The first settlers began to arrive in 1733 and included many released from debtors’ prisons. SNe ae SOME STATES HAVE AN ARMY, THE -PRUSSIAN ARMY HAS A STATE. 59 _ Voltaire, French thinker (1694-1778) 15 990 people died. In cities such Also in 1733, Danish seaman - Vitus Bering (1681-1741), after whom the Bering Strait is named (see 1728], began the Great | Northern Exploration. Empress Anna of Russia (1693-1740) had authorized a large expedition : involving 3,000 people in three separate groups: one group was to map northern Siberia; the second, to explore north of Japan; and Bering's group, to determine what lay east of the strait. It was not until June 1741, just months before his B= that Bering first » caught sight of Mount St. Elias Prussian blue The conscripted army of Prussian king Frederick William | wore dark blue coats with red linings and red-and-white facings. pul $ se st SS NV oF 6 BP 6? oh a Soe oem get on™ p00 89 s ot 400) Mo pF 62> 7 go" ho A Ra as eS oe Rea = S REN Se ot ee oe w ‘a ¥ c 2 x wu! ae Os ae es CaCO 2 Od “eo ons a Or 10 BP Bes OAS co eo Vr ee ad Are 9 oof SL" oy oO roe ooo ne AF PF ae 018 WN? oo go Sh ot AN 209 gt oe) BEE er FPS ge® gorge Sve oe SS Wr oF & > & xe x death in December, : “Tavern Scene” is one of the eight paintings of British artist William Hogarth’s A Rake’s Progress (1732-33), which depicts the downfall of a rich merchant's feckless heir. i 46 WHERE : on the Alaskan mainland. In the : same month, his second ship sent | men ashore on Alaska’s Prince of i Wales Island Meanwhile, during the Kyoho : era (July 1716 to April 1736) in Japan, famine had struck. In : 1732, swarms of locusts attacked the crops, especially rice, of © agricultural communities around the inland sea. Heavy rains then destroyed winter crops of wheat and barley, and insects decimated the following year’s rice crop. The i worst-affected area was the north of Kyushu Island, where around as Edo [present-day Tokyo) and : Osaka, the cost of rice rose : seven-fold, and in 1733 rice shops | were attacked during food riots. In 1733 Poland’s King Augustus II died. Stanislaw Leszczynski was made king when 12,000 Polish : nobles voted for him in the Sejm election. However, 3,000 nobles who voted for Augustus III used TOTAL POPULATION Kyoho famine in Japan In the Fukuoka Domain, northern Kyushu, about 20 percent of the : population died during the 1733 : famine of the Kyoho era. (1704-80). The loom had a wheeled, thread-carrying shuttle, : which greatly increased the rate at which fabrics could be made. © Kay's new loom threatened the © livelihood of weavers, who : attempted to get the loom Polish election, 1733 Stanislaw Leszczynski 1:4 = gained 12,000 votes and temporarily became king of Poland. Augustus II! gained only 3,000 votes but succeeded him in 1734. the backing of Russia and Austria to install Augustus as king in 1734. What began as a civil war developed into the War of the Polish Succession (1733-38) as the Bourbons (France and Spain), the Habsburgs [Austria], Prussia, Saxony, and Russia campaigned outside Poland to seize territories lost after the War of the Spanish Succession (see 1701). Only with the Treaty of Vienna in 1738 did Stanislaw give up his legal claim. British culture in this period came to be dominated by radical humanism, a conviction that human identity, ethics, and knowledge need not be based on a belief in God. Alexander Pope (1688-1744) wrote in his poem An Essay on Man (1734), “Know then thyself, presume not God to scan/ | The proper study of Mankind is Man.” Secular humanism spread to the arts, with artists such as William Hogarth (1697-1764) bringing sharp social criticism and satire to their depictions of humanity. Another British development was the patenting in 1733 of a flying-shuttle loom by John Kay © banned. However, they were » unsuccessful, and Kay’s invention | was adopted widely. VOLTAIRE (1694-1 778) Born Francois-Marie Arouet in Paris, Voltaire was a prolific writer, historian, and philosopher of the French Enlightenment (see 1763) who disseminated his radical humanist ideas in works that ranged from essays and historical works to poems, plays, and novels. His ideas— on social reform and civil liberties, for example—often met with hostility, forcing him to flee several times, but they had a major influence on thinkers of the French and American revolutions. ey Pot > a? 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The Scots defeated a : Hanoverian force in the Battle Prince Charlie,” as Charles became known, crossed to of Prestonpans and eventually reached Derby but then retreated, : having gained little support from the English or the French. Military : successes followed on their return to Scotland, but in 1746 This 18th-century, hand-colored copperplate engraving shows disciplined ranks of red-coated Hanoverian troops falling upon Jacobite Highlanders at the Battle of Culloden, the last battle of the Jacobite uprising. Deadly Coehorn mortar The Hanoverian army at Culloden had six short-barreled Coehorn mortars; easily portable, they were deadly weapons on the battlefield. the Scottish force was overcome : by a Hanoverian force at the Battle of Culloden. The hounding and killing of fleeing and wounded _ Highlanders earned the © Hanoverian commander, William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, : notoriety as the “Butcher of » Culloden.” The battle ended the : Second Jacobite Rebellion and wiped out Jacobite hopes of regaining power in Britain. In 1745, an English farmer began experiments in selective animal breeding that were to » revolutionize animal husbandry. The principle of mating animals with desired traits was already : known, but the methods developed © by farmer Robert Bakewell were : better than earlier ones. His work : resulted in the New Leicester breed of sheep and New i Longhorn cattle breed, both of » which are still widely influential © in animal breeding today. In Japan, the hold of the Tokugawa dynasty on power was weakening. In 1745, Tokugawa leshige (1712-61) was elected as shogun. The retiring shogun’s eldest son was poor in health, defective in speech, and had little interest in government affairs, but his father demanded his succession as primogeniture dictated. Natural disasters and famine characterized his reign, and as the power of the mercantile class grew, his own authority declined, the result of poor decisions and delegation of power to subordinates. Meanwhile, France was still at war with Austria and its allies. In 1746 a French force, authorized by Governor-General Joseph Francois Dupleix (1697-1763), took the British-held Indian port of Madras. In 1747, Dupleix followed this with an attack on Fort St. David, the strongly Selectively bred sheep This 1842 engraving depicts a New Leicester ram, a breed developed by Robert Bakewell’s new breeding methods at his Leicestershire farm. : fortified British headquarters in © southern India, 100 miles (160 km) : south of Madras, but this time he : was unsuccessful. However, the French remained in occupation © of Madras until the Treaty of : Aix-la-Chapelle (see 1748} returned the port to the British in exchange for Louisbourg in © Nova Scotia. In China, during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1736-99), | Christians were subjected to : renewed persecution from 1746 : to 1748 asa matter of imperial © policy. In 1715, Pope Clement XII : had criticized idolatrous elements : in Chinese religious practices, and : the Qianlong Emperor realized : that Chinese Christians felt © greater loyalty to foreign powers : than to him. As a result, 44 THE MOST SUDDEN AND VISIBLE GOOD EFFECTS WERE...FROM ORANGES AND LEMONS. 99 James Lind, British surgeon, from Treatise of the Scurvy, 1753 evangelization was banned, and Chinese Christians were forced to go into hiding. Wherever missionaries were discovered flouting the law by preaching, the persecution of Christians was intensified. Another scientific breakthrough in 1745 was the Leyden jar, probably the most important 18th-century development in the understanding of electricity. Early capacitor The Leyden jar could store electric charge, which was created by an electrostatic generator and conducted into the jar through its metal rod. : Invented by the Dutch scientist : Pieter van Musschenbroek of the i University of Leiden, this device, : an early type of capacitor, : demonstrated that electricity could be stored. From this developed the idea ofa battery, originally a group of Leyden jars combined to generate a more powerful electric charge. In 1747, the powerful Persian overlord Nader Shah {b. 1688), who had become paranoid and mercilessly cruel, was murdered by his bodyguards. A grand assembly in Kandahar, Afghanistan, recognizing the Map of Madras This 1750 engraving depicts the Indian port of Madras, together with its British Fort of St. George, both captured by a French naval expedition in 1746. resulting weakness of the Persian Empire, elected Nader's Afghan lieutenant, Ahmad Khan Abdali, (also known as Ahmad Shah Durrani, 1722-73) as head and founder of the modern state of Afghanistan. Abdali was to unify the country under his rule and develop a large empire, including parts of present-day Iran, Pakistan, and India. In West Africa, the Yoruba people, occupying territory from eastern present-day Benin to southern Nigeria, invaded the Kingdom of Dahomey in 1747. The kingdom was rich from trade in slaves and commodities such as palm oil, and was forced to pay tribute to the Yoruba Empire of Oyo, an arrangement that lasted until 1818. 1747 also saw a development that was to improve the lives of sailors. In a pioneering study, James Lind, a surgeon of the Royal Navy, proved that scurvy, a sometimes fatal disease common during long voyages, could be treated by eating citrus fruit. However, only in 1795 did the Royal Navy begin to use lemon juice to prevent and treat scurvy. A fireworks display on the Thames River on May 15, 1749, organized by the Duke of Richmond to celebrate the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION (see 1740) was concluded by the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (present-day Aachen] in 1748. Prussia’s conquest of Silesia was recognized, France regained some of its colonies in exchange for withdrawing from the Netherlands, and Britain's Asiento contract with Spain (see 1713] was renewed. Nader Shah's lucrative sacking of Dethi (see 1739) became the incentive for a second attack, this time on the Punjab by Ahmad Khan Abdali [see 1747). His army of 12,000 horsemen was met in the Battle of Manupur bya defensive Mughal force of 60,000. Abdali’s Afghans held their own until 1,000 of them were killed by an exploding gunpowder store; devastated, they fled. Meanwhile, arising power in the south was the Kingdom of Mysore under the control of Hyder Ali (1720-82), father of the famous Tipu Sultan (1750-99). Under Hyder Ali, the Mysore Empire seized territory from the Marathas, Hyderabad, and neighboring kingdoms. In North America, the British presence in Nova Scotia was consolidated with the establishment of Halifax in 1749; the area capital was transferred there from Annapolis Royal. In violation of a previous treaty, Lieutenant General Edward Cornwallis (1713-76) arrived with transport ships containing 2,500 settlers, sparking a war in which the French and native Mikmaq Unrefined platinum ore Platinum was discovered in South America by Spanish conquerors. The » name is derived from the Spanish term platina, meaning ‘little silver.” kept the British settlement constantly under attack. In Pennsylvania, the first - Lutheran Synod was founded : in 1748 by Henry Melchior Mihlenburg (1711-87). German Lutherans had first arrived in Pennsylvania in 1683, but it was the creation of the Synod that | unified the Lutheran community. South America’s gold and silver had long been valued in Europe, : but it was not until 1748, witha : report from Spanish explorer Antonio de Ulloa (1716-95), that the value of South America’s platinum was realized. A dense, corrosion-resistant metal, it was » mined in the Cordillera Occidental : of Colombia and in central Peru. Another Spaniard, Giacobbo © Rodriguez Pereire (1715-80), made history in 1749 when he took a pupil to the Paris Academy of Sciences to demonstrate his » new sign language for deaf- mutes in which the sign alphabet i required the use of only one hand. 253 THE AGE OF REVOLUTION 1750-1913 Often dramatic, war-torn, and violent, this period was also a time of remarkable technological advances in medicine, communication, and transportation—ushering in the beginnings of the modern world. . ts x José | of Portugal’s coat of arms on the ceiling of Coimbra University. THE COLONIAL BOUNDARY BETWEEN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL in the New World was settled by the Treaty of Madrid, signed on 13 January, which significantly amended the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). The previous agreement stipulated that the Portuguese empire extend no further than 370 leagues west of the Azores (around 46 degrees west], but the new treaty took into account the extent of Portuguese settlement in Brazil. Spain hoped that by allowing Portugal some concessions it would discourage any further Portuguese territorial expansion in the region. MARQUIS OF POMBAL (1699-1782) The Marquis of Pombal was a controversial political figure, appointed prime minister of Portugal in 1750, the year José | (1714-77) took the throne. His 27 years in power saw economic and social reform, and the expulsion of the Jesuits. THE NUMBER OF VOLUMES OFTHE | ENCYCLOPEDIE PUBLISHED BETWEEN 1751 AND 1765 ENGLAND WAS EXPERIENCING AN ALCOHOL CRISIS, fuelled by the popularity of cheap gin, as illustrated by the darkly satirical engraving Gin Lane by William Hogarth (1697-1764), issued in 1751. Gin production had been refined over the previous 50 years, and the spirit proved hugely popular — by the year Hogarth's print was completed, the British were drinking more than two gallons of gin per capita a year. Public outcry over the social effects of gin led to the Gin Act of 1751, which attempted to limit the amount that could be bought. In France, intellectuals led by the writer and philosopher Denis Diderot (1713-84) began the publication of the Encyclopédie, ou = dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, : des arts et des métiers. Known as the Encyclopédie, it became one of the defining works of the A detail from engraver William Hogarth's 1751 work Gin Lane depicts the public drunkenness and social problems caused by cheap gin. : Enlightenment (see 1763). Many i influential French thinkers — such _ as Montesquieu [1689-1755], | Jean-Jacques Rousseau » (1712-78), and Voltaire (1694- : 1778) - contributed to tens of : thousands of articles in the work, _ which attempted to catalogue the depths of human knowledge in : science, philosophy, politics, and religion. With its emphasis on = reason, the volumes were banned : in some countries, such as Spain, : where the Catholic Inquisition : objected to its content. Halfway across the world, China : was extending its power in the » Dzungaria and Tarim basin by | fighting the Mongolian tribes © for control to this key part of the © steppes. The basin’s importance © lay in its proximity to the Silk Road [see pages 100-01), the i vital trade route between China | and the West. ROCOCO This 18th-century painting on the ceiling of a Bavarian church exemplifies the work of the Rococo movement that dominated European decorative arts, architecture, painting, and sculpture. Rococo evolved out of Baroque (see 1626], but its details and flourishes were even more ornate and often playful. The period is often associated with French design during the reigns of Louis XV (r. 1715-54) and Louis XVI (r. 1774-92). This Buddha statue is in the Sulamani Pahto temple in Bagan, Burma, which was built in 1181 but contains images and frescos from the Konbaung period. 46 ENERGY AND Pp BURMA [MYANMAR] HAD LONG BEEN DIVIDED among warring factions until a chief, Alaungpaya (1714-60), began to unite the country through a series of military victories, and established the Konbaung dynasty. Not only did he have to bring disparate groups together, he also faced the challenge of troops from Britain and France, who were eager to gain territory in Burma and who were willing to arm Alaungpaya's enemies. But for the next seven years, Alaungpaya resisted both threats, and British and French troops were driven out. Under successive kings, the unified kingdom continued to become stronger, and over the following decades it went so far as to make incursions into Siam (Thailand). In Britain, the public went to bed on 2 September and woke up on 14 September. The government ERSISTENCE CONQUER ALL “THINGS. 99 : Attributed to Benjamin Franklin, : American inventor, politician, : and diplomat » had made the decision to change from the Julian calendar to the : Gregorian one, joining the other » western European countries that | had made the change hundreds of © years before. This calendar was » introduced in 1582 by Pope Gregory » XIII, who chose to make the H change when it became clear that the old Julian calendar put around 11 extra days between vernal © equinoxes, making the celebration » of Easter arrive earlier each year. In British North America, © scientific discoveries were making : their own leap forward. Inventor, politician, and diplomat Benjamin : Franklin (1706-90) invented the - lightning conductor. Before the » advent of Franklin's lightning rod, : buildings were often destroyed by : fires started by lightning. Franklin : thought there was a relationship between lightning and electricity » and was said to have flown a kite © ina lightning storm to prove his theory. The rod, developed after : this experiment, attracts © lightning, which is conducted into : the ground, bypassing the building : and keeping it safe froma © lightning strike. sd (> es al > x os Py a ef Se? of ‘a oe «“ x2 pF ww 6 a Ss a ROE OES CLIN 2 2 we a? x08 = oe sage oe, & ord aed RO Wa® os ome Go Ee oe aot RO near ye ve ANE Oo Ra Bor 9 cei ot oe << ow FP ces s QP Ve ook PO FO ars wht ws PO 8 Eo ° rere PF 5o8 we wee RS PO Oe ot’ ee SOG yon Co Veron ow Drs x Re G . 8 e xo ed ae x? oot op? Ae ne oe CaS ae 09 Aye gd ee ede eres wero 0 SoS oat oF IT Oo ae OAs Porc, Ko 6% 0 BOF ee ger Wack oF db HE WO po igF ge ye go" We Le? Sy Ble os 2 oo or oR 2 oF ee we LN ot’ ow ot Qo eS ss J we" ve? g & 256 Based on the work of the botanist Carl Linnaeus, this botanical drawing of blackberries is by J. Miller. BY THE TIME SIR HANS SLOANE : exchange, he wanted a payment (1660-1753), an Irish-born physician and collector, died, he had amassed 71,000 different objects, ranging from samples of flora and fauna from all over the world, to books and manuscripts about a wide range of subjects. Like other intellectuals and scientists across Europe, he was part of wider Enlightenment intellectual currents, and he had realized the scholarly value of his collection, which he bequeathed to Britain. In Golden collection Used for determining positions of stars, this gold astrolabe, was part of Hans Sloane's collection. «) of £20,000 to his estate - well below the value of the collection. The English Parliament approved » the deal and passed an act : establishing the British Museum. : Parts of the collection were put on 1 public display a few years later. : Sloane's contemporaries across Europe were engaged in collecting and other scientific pursuits. In the same year, Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707-78) published his Species Plantarum, which classified more than 7,000 species of plants by putting each genus into a class and order, a system Mm that is still used today. A he This scene shows troops mounted on elephants during the Carnatic War. THE SECOND CARNATIC WAR (1749-54) and the French and Indian War (1754-63) were both precursors to the larger Seven Years’ War (1756-63). However, the theatre of these Anglo-French disputes was not Europe. The INDIA Hugh) Chandernager opin air els Calcutta Diu $Daman Bassein TBombay Goa@ * Vizagapatam #Yanam Masulipatam —Pulicat Cannanore — Madras Mahe ~ Pondicherry Calicut — oe Karikal ‘Cochin ———__Nagapatam Jaffna ——Trincomale Colombo KEY Galle ™™Matara * Portuguese * French settlements settlements © British Dutch settlements settlements Europe in India By the mid-18th century, European powers held territories and established settlements in India. French and Indian War ranged from Virginia in the ® south to Nova Scotia in the north of North America. Battles of the Second Carnatic War took place in South India. The Treaty of Pondicherry temporarily halted tensions between France and Britain, whose troops were technically employed by corporations - the East India companies. The treaty recognized the British-backed Mohammad Ali as the new Nawab of Carnatic, which had been a key factor behind the dispute. A painting depicts the desperate search for survivors in Lisbon after the city was heavily damaged by an earthquake in November. 44 1AM NOT SOLOST IN LEXICOGRAPHY AS TO FORGET THAT WORDS ARE THE DAUGHTERS OF EARTH. gy Samuel Johnson, English writer, from the preface of his Dictionary of the English Language, 1755 AN EARTHQUAKE KILLED TENS OF THOUSANDS OF PEOPLE in Lisbon, Portugal, when it shook the city on the morning of 1 November. It was later estimated by scientists to be around an 8.7 magnitude event. Estimates of the number of deaths range from 10,000 to The earthquake also triggered a tsunami that destroyed settlements further south in the Algarve region. The disaster had a profound effect across Europe - Voltaire {1694-1778} was inspired to write his Poéme sur le désastre de Lisbonne about the event, and German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) wrote a series of essays aboutit. The Marquis of Pombal (see panel, left) immediately took action, making sure fires were put out and the dead were quickly buried. He then began the rebuilding of the city, including the construction of buildings meant to withstand another earthquake. Earlier in the year, in England, the writer Samuel Johnson (1709-84) had completed the commission he had received for a Dictionary of the English Language from a syndicate of : London printers. It took him : eight years and six assistants i to finish it. Although it was not © the first English dictionary, it © quickly became the most celebrated and authoritative. : Some of its more notorious : definitions include “patron: 100,000 in a population of 200,000. : commonly a wretch who supports : with insolence, and is paid with © flattery” and “oats: a grain, : which in England is generally ' given to horses, but in Scotland | supports the people”. : English by definition ) This is the front cover of the first ! edition of Samuel Johnson's : Dictionary of the English Language. oe Or e ne eat Not 0 PE ad) 0 ROO p% aN oo oot om so Ae os? ad WP ot 30? Coe. Xa oy Rog Sy es NS This detail taken from an engraving by Paul Revere depicts the British capture of the French fort in Louisbourg, Nova Scotia. The fort was built to protect France's interests in the region and became a target for the British when war was declared in 1756. The town was attacked by land and sea, falling to the British in 1758. THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR [1756-63] was fought in theaters from India to North America to Europe, making it a truly global conflict. Its roots, however, were European. The earlier War of Austrian Succession (see 1740) left many territorial issues unresolved. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) did not settle the dispute between Prussia and Austria over the province of Silesia, located in southeast Prussia and bordering Austria. At the same time, British and French tensions continued to simmer. Because of complicated FREDERICK II (1712-86) Known as “Frederick the Great,” the Prussian King Frederick II ruled for 46 years. With his interest in culture and philosophy, Frederick's reign was marked by a liberal spirit. But it was his military prowess that earned Frederick II his reputation, as he transformed the small kingdom of Prussia into a European power. alliances, these situations escalated into what became known as the Seven Years’ War. By 1754, some key incidents had made the battle lines clear. In April, France invaded Minorca in the Mediterranean, which Britain had taken from Spain in 1708. The French sent 15,000 troops to the island, where the British had only * around 2,500. Britain formally declared war on France. The conflict brought in the Electorate of Hanover, in northwest Germany, which was willing to send the British extra troops. Prussia’s Frederick II (1712- 86), meanwhile, was increasingly France and Russia. In May, his troops entered the Electorate of : Men at arms | The sizes of the armies ) involved in the Seven » Years’ War are shown : here. Although some of : the important battles : were at sea, most of the : fighting was done by : army soldiers. : Saxony, between Prussia and © Russia. They outnumbered those : in Saxony by more than 3:1, but _ Austria's leader, Maria Theresa : (1717-80), was quick to send i more troops. The war had begun. Britain and Prussia formed an : alliance against France, Russia, : Austria, Sweden, Saxony, and suspicious of the alliance between : : was also pursuing its own : interests: Britain wanted France eventually Spain. But each country 000 out of India and North America; Austria and Prussia both wanted Silesia. Russia wanted to curb Frederick II's growing powers and assist Austria and France. The European conflict had been preceded by skirmishes in colonial territories: the British and French had been fighting in North America, as wellas in India. Anglo-French tensions had spilled over into disputes with SWEDEN Zorndorf 1758 Minden 1759 Krefeld 1758 \ RUSSIAN EMPIRE BRITAIN \ heen Kolin 1757 Rossbach 1757 “~~ EUROPE Quebec Quiberon Bay 1759 Bohemia NORTH 1759 wuiberon Bay 1759 © Rance HOLY ROMAN AMERICA PORTUGAL NEW spain &% Minorca 1756 FRANCE ATLANTIC OCEAN Havana 1762 a AFRICA Guadeloupe 1759 Martinique 1762 PACIFIC OCEAN SOUTH AMERICA The Seven Years’ War KEY oe ; The battlefields of this conflict spanned the globe, stretching from % Britain Austria Canada to India to Europe, making it the first global war. The colored © Prussia ® France crosses show the victors in the key battles. © Anglo-German alliance v7 Eo _ local rulers in India, leading to an infamous incident—the Black Hole of Calcutta. The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Dawlah (1733-57), who France supported, attacked the British in Calcutta and imprisoned many of them ina small cell in Fort William. Estimates of the captives range from 60 to 150. Overnight, between 40 and 123 of them died due to overcrowding and heat. ASIA INDIA Wandiwash 1760 Pondicherry 1761 INDIAN OCEAN ns rm ee a Be RW x? Caer ACS © eM er Oe anes eo dt cera Rees NOE oo ue eo cot Seat wh J Barbary pirates in an engagement with the Venetian navy. THE BRITISH-PRUSSIAN ALLIANCE (see 1756) received a number of boosts during 1757. Robert Clive (1725-74) recovered Calcutta for the East India Company [see 1600) and Britain by defeating the Nawab of Bengalat the Battle of Plassey. The Holy Roman Emperor Francis |—who was married to Austria’s Maria Frederick Il leads his soldiers to victory at the Battle of Zorndorf. Spain's new king, Charles III, would rule for nearly 30 years. Luis Paret y Alcazar (1746-99) depicts palace life in his painting Charles II! Eating Before his Court. 44 ALLIS FORTHE BEST IN THE BEST OF ALL POSSIBLE WORLDS. 9g Voltaire, French writer, from Candide, 1759 AS THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR CONTINUED, the British won key victories over France by taking Fort Duquesne and Louisbourg in North America and Pondicherry in India [see map, opposite), and by claiming Senegal in West Africa. In Europe, Britain and Prussia defeated the French near the banks of the Rhine at Krefeld Germany, followed in November by further defeat by the Austrians in the Battle of Maxen in Saxony. In Spain, the throne was taken by the Bourbon Charles III (1716-88), who would become known for his reforming zeal. Portugal, meanwhile, had grown = suspicious of the activities of the Catholic Jesuit order (see 1533), expelling it from its territories. Cultural developments included the publication by the Frenchman Francois Marie Arouet de Voltaire of Candide, a satire about mindless optimism. in June and Russia at the battle of Zorndorf, on Prussian soil, in August. Meanwhile, in India, warfare was breaking out on a different front— between Afghans and Marathas. Territorial disputes were behind the Afghan-Maratha War (which continued until 1861). After the death of Nader Shah [1688-1747], his Persian empire began to disintegrate and Afghanistan emerged independent under the rule of Anmad Shah Durrani (c. 1722-73) who wanted to gain control of the nearby territories of the Punjab and the Upper Ganges. Durrani had sacked the Mughal city of Delhi the previous year. The neighboring Marathas, who felt they should rule over the territory, then went to war against the Afghans. In the Arabian Peninsula, significant—though not violent— political change was taking place as the chieftains of the Utub confederation elected Sabah bin Jaber (Sabah I} (c. 1652-1762) emir of an emerging territory that would soon become known as Kuwait. His family, the al-Sabah dynasty, continues to rule Kuwait to the present day. Theresa—officially declared war on Prussia. King Frederick II then attacked Bohemia, though he was defeated by Austrian troops. Although Prussia defeated Austro-French forces in Rossbach in November, they lost to Austrian troops in Leuthan in December. In Morocco, Muhammad III (c. 1710-90} brought stability to the country as sultan after 30 years of unrest. Muhammad was known for curbing the power of the Barbary pirates, who raided towns across the Mediterranean. FOR THE BRITISH, THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR reached a turning point. They took the French West Indian island of Guadeloupe in May, Canadian territory in July, and Quebec in September. They also defeated French naval forces off Portugal at Lagos Bay in August and at Quiberon Bay, in the west of France, in November. Anglo-Prussian troops defeated the French at the Battle of Minden in Germany in early August, although less than two weeks later Prussia faced a humiliating surrender at Kunersdorf, in Robert Clive Calcutta was recaptured for the British by Major General Robert Clive at the Battle of Plassey. The victory secured Clive's control over Bengal. ABOLITIONISM The image of a kneeling slave and the inscription “Am | not a man and a brother?” became a famous symbol of the British abolitionist movement and was later adopted by the American Anti-Slavery Society, founded in 1833. The seal was made by Josiah Wedgwood for the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade. After decades of pressure, the British slave trade ended in 1807. Abolitionist groups were also established in other countries involved in slavery, such as the French Société des Amis des Noirs. Wedgwood pottery Born into a family of English potters, Josiah Wedgwood transformed his craft with his style and technique. He set up his own business in 1759 and became potter to Queen Charlotte. His “creamware” dishes were hugely popular. ss < su nN ek od ro oe oo s se oo = Pv oe RONG we oes He Pines aS =f Sse Oe i" 8 ave a oo Bey oO cae ae ie Mat? g? oe ot gs

oo es weed ge” BON we dae Kok er) oo 3 ease oP oe gt ows Re Oe Cor Se ee eh qor a ooe® cee oct eS ote gor wr st By = so SS rs > or S02” 8 3 Rs iy) Acaricature of George | was born in Britain, which he ruled for nearly 60 years. WHEN GEORGE III (1738-1820) TOOK THE THRONE OF ENGLAND in 1760, he was the first king from the German royal dynasty, the Hanoverians, to be born in Britain. | Unlike his German-speaking grandfather, George Il (1683-1760), © English was his first language. The crown skipped a generation owing to the death of George's father, Frederick Lewis (1707-51). Before his death, he left instructions for the 12-year-old George to separate the Electorate of Hanover from England and reduce the national debt, when he took the throne. After the death of his father, George fell under the influence of John Stuart, Third Earl of Bute (1713-92), who was his tutor and adviser. During the early years of George Ill's reign, Bute held much sway. This was especially evident in the souring of relations with William Pitt the Elder (1708-78) and the Newcastle-Pitt coalition, which governed Britain during the height of the Seven Years’ War 50 40 30 20 10 PRICE IN POUNDS STERLING 0 1748 1758 1775 Price of a male slave As British Caribbean colonies began to increase sugar production, they had to bring in more African slaves as labor, as did the French. 1755 ie 31 | Fleet size in the Seven Years’ War : Many important battles were at sea, © and British naval strength became : even more superior to that of France. | [see 1756). Most significant in this : period is George Ill’s desire to _ have the war come to an end, as : well as have Britain distance itself from Prussia. These wishes were : made manifest when Bute became prime minster in 1762. While George II! was embroiled i in British and European politics, : his dominions in the Caribbean had undergone a transformation. They were no longer imperial outposts, but wealthy sugar © colonies. However, these riches . depended on the use of thousands ~ : of African slaves to work on the i plantations. The population of : British America had reached two : million by 1760, and of this, more : than 300,000 were slaves. Similarly, : © the slave population in France's : Caribbean colonies would reach 379,000 by the end of the decade. : In the Spanish sugar islands, » however, Cuba had fewer than : 40,000 slaves, but its sugar boom would come later. 1760 115 KEY British Royal Navy ©® battleships cruisers French Navy ® battleships cruisers The British island of Jamaica | had become a large sugar i producer and seen a rapid rise : in the importation of slaves, many © of whom ran away or rebelled. © Arebellion took place on Easter : Sunday in 1760, when a revolt led : byaslave named Tacky began in : St. Mary's parish. It spread from i there, and some 30,000 slaves : participated before it was i suppressed the following year. Meanwhile, in Qing China, the i ongoing revolts in the northwest frontier by Mongol tribes, which : started around 1755, had finally : been suppressed. The conflict had : begun after the Mongols refused © to pay the annual tribute the Chinese government had © demanded—indeed, the Mongols | went so far as to kill the Chinese : revenue collectors. However, : China was eventually able to : overpower the Mongols and : bring their territory under their : dominion by 1760. ha e y 7 Hyder Ali, the ruler of the Indian kingdom of Mysore, who became an enemy of British East India Company troops. AS THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR INTENSIFIED within Europe, italso : reached a climax in the colonial possessions. The British effectively : destroyed French power in India when they seized Pondicherry (see map, below]. The port had been settled by the French East India Company in 1674 and had become one of France's main bases of operations for trade as well as ongoing fights against the British East India Company. This victory followed another one against the French the previous year in Wandiwash, in southeast India. At the same time in India, the fighting between Afghans and Marathas [see 1758) came toa head in the battle of Panipat, in the north of the territory, on January 14. The battle was bloody, with high casualty rates—some 75,000 Marathas were killed and 30,000 captured. However, Ahmad Shah Durrani, who led the Afghans, was forced by his troops to return to the throne in Afghanistan, This outcome meant that the Marathas and British began to divide the former Mughal = territory among themselves. The war contributed to the weakening of the Maratha Confederacy and the further decentralization of its power, leading to the breakup of its kingdoms and subsequent battles over territory with Britain. Farther south, in Mysore, another future enemy of Britain, Hyder Ali [1720-82], was building up his army and consolidating his power base in order to take control of the territory. Halfway across the world, British and French troops were | fighting in the Caribbean. The British used the island of : Guadeloupe, which they had » captured two years earlier [see : map, 1756), as a base from : which to take Dominica from : the French. The following year : they stormed Martinique. : To complicate matters further, : Spain had entered the conflict, : and Britain's naval fleet was | making preparations to attack : Spanish ships. However, the attack plans would go beyond : naval skirmishes, as British : troops managed to not only © invade and occupy the Cuban © port of Havana the following year, they also used ships © stationed in India to mount : a similar attack on Manila, : the capital of the Spanish : colony of the Philippines. Panipat # INDIA Wandiwash M . Yeore® Pondicherry : Conflicts in India | India was the site of important | battles in 1761, not only for Britain and France, but also in the fight : between Marathas and Afghans. THAT'S HIS. 99 RUSSIA SAW THE ARRIVAL OF TWO RULERS over the course of 1762, first with the ascension of Peter III (1728-62) and later Catherine Il (1729-96), who became known as Catherine the Great. When Peter III became emperor, he made clear his support of Prussia in the Seven Years’ War and then pulled Russia out of the conflict. His views were deeply unpopular with ministers and the public. A conspiracy against him was quickly organized, leading to his arrest. His wife, Catherine, was installed as empress of Russia. Peter III was imprisoned, where he died in the Great's reign was marked by Russian aggression and territorial expansion. She introduced wide-ranging reforms in agriculture, industry, and education. She also relaxed Russia's censorship laws and was known for her love of literature and particular fondness for French philosophers and writers— including Voltaire, with whom she corresponded for 15 years. As the Seven Years’ War continued, Spain became further drawn into events as the British occupied its key Caribbean port of Havana. In addition to this, Britain was able to use troops in India to occupy Manila, in the Philippines, which was also a Spanish colony. At the same time, Spain and France entered a secret agreement known as the Treaty of Fontainebleau. Under the France’s Louisiana territory in 44 | SHALL BE AN AUTOCRAT, THAT’S MY TRADE; AND THE GOOD LORD WILL FORGIVE ME, Attributed to Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia : Catherine the Great terms of the treaty, Spain received : The German-born empress of © Russia, who reigned from 1762 until dubious circumstances. Catherine = 1796, oversaw the territorial expansion of her adopted country. = North America, which stretched : west of the Mississippi River. The treaty was partly to thank Spanish : Bourbons for their support of : French forces, and also to get rid : of apotential drain on resources. Spain also benefited from the deal because it would block British © expansion toward Spanish © territory, especially nearby Mexico. In France, the philosopher and _ writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau : (1712-78) published his influential » treatise, The Social Contract (Du © Contrat Social) in which he examined the relationship : between governments and the governed, and the question of | freedom in the face of political : authority. It was immediately banned by French authorities. which ended the Seven Years’ War. OUT OF MONEY AND EXHAUSTED, THE EUROPEAN POWERS fighting the Seven Years’ War brought the conflict to a close with the Treaty of Paris (also known as the Peace of Paris) and the Treaty of Hubertusburg. The cost had been enormous—the lives of hundreds of thousands of soldiers, and mountains of money. Britain's national debt rose from £75 million to £133 million; Prussia raised taxes and debased the taler three times. For Austria it cost 392 million gulden (the original estimate was 28 million] and French national debt rose from 1,360 million livres in 1753 to 2,350 million livres in 1764, The Treaty of Paris involved Britain, France, and Spain. The French faced the largest losses: they ceded to Britain their territories in present-day Canada, with the exception of the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon; their territories in present-day US east of the Mississippi River; the Caribbean islands of Grenada, Dominica, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Tobago; Minorca in the Mediterranean; and Senegal in West Africa. They also formalized their cessation of the Louisiana territory to Spain. In exchange, Britain returned to France the valuable Caribbean sugar islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe; Belle Island, off the coast of Brittany; and the slave-trading island of Gorée in West Africa. France also regained its Indian factories, but they were not allowed to fortify them. The Spanish were forced to give their Florida territory to Britain, but in A print of a fireworks display in London celebrating the Peace of Paris, exchange British troops left Havana and Manila. In Europe, France agreed to evacuate German territories. Under the Treaty of Hubertusburg, the borders of 1756 were reinstated, so Austria retreated from Silesia and Prussia left Saxony, and Europe reverted to its former boundaries. In the Ohio River valley territory, Pontiac (1720-69), a chief of the Ottawa people, was angered by the deal, which would put the land under British rule. In what became known as Pontiac’s Rebellion, he led attacks against settlements, a situation that lasted until a deal between the Ottawa and British was reached in 1766. r Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, age 8, around the time he visited Britain. IN AN ATTEMPT TO FILL THE COFFERS DEPLETED BY WAR, the British government brought in the Sugar Act, which clamped down on tax avoidance on imported molasses in North America, a move that angered traders and colonists. At this time, the musical prodigy Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-91) was on a three-year tour of Europe with his family. He visited Munich, Brussels, Paris, and London, where his father Leopold presented him to play at the royal courts. While in London he met the German composer Johann Christian Bach (1735-82), who became an important musical mentor. The Enlightenment was a time of questioning many established beliefs in Europe—a change in ideas reflected in the writings and other cultural output from around the mid-18th century. It is also marked by scientific curiosity and advancement. This painting by Luke Howard (1772-1864) shows a fascination with weather that led him to classify and name many cloud types. 1750-1913 | THE AGE OF REVOLUTION EUROPEAN PLANNING PEACE FOR A CONTINENT AT WAR Europe at the dawn of the 19th century bore little resemblance to the peaceful political unit of cooperative countries that it has become in the 21st century. Indeed, prior to 1815, the power balances and political alliances were constantly shifting, leading to near-continual confrontation. The Napoleonic Wars had seen Europeinacycle of torn Europe apart and a spirit of conservatism almost constant conflict for more than a decade and restoration prevailed—though not all deposed and left Europe in a state of imbalance. To address _ rulers were restored, and not all possessions lost the questions of howto reorganize the war-ravaged __in the Napoleonic Wars were regained. continent, a congress was called at Vienna in 1814. The national boundaries resulting from the ANIEIL ZN INDI INE Decisions were made on what to do with the new Treaty of Vienna in 1815 stayed in place for more OCEAN states that Napoleon had created, such as the than four decades. Fear of revolution led to a desire Grand Duchy of Warsaw (see map below), and the among Europe's statesmen to maintain the status regions of Germany, Italy, and the Low Countries quo. Although there were threats from liberal and Bay of that had been annexed to France. The peacemakers _ nationalist elements, the Vienna system survived aimed to avoid a repetition of the conflicts that had and disputes were largely settled by diplomacy. 1815 The Congress of 1820: revolution in i ‘ peas Portugal against British NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE Vienna’s reorganization PREY > control of country When Napoleon became First Consul of France in 1799, Sail aeratae a he soon made clear his imperial ambitions by crowning Confederation. The himself emperor of France in 1804 and mounting military growth of liberalism and ei nationalism in Europe campaigns throughout Europe. saw uprisings across the continent but the Vienna system held firm until SPAIN the revolutions of 1848. Pn 1833-39: First Carlist War 1820: revolution Madrid y Cy ~~ Sa g 1846-48: Second Carlist War fey GIBRALTAR North Sea a & Threat to Vienna system to Britain DENMARK =@ Rl = Internal frontiers 1815 Copenhagen 5 ~~ German confederation Is GRAND DUCHY CONFEDERATION OF WARSAW | Population chart BETHE RHINE Peague Prussia At the beginning of Zurich AUSTRIAN EMPIRE Napoleon's rule, Munich es England France had a far larger population than the Habsburg surrounding states. This chart shows population figures * + *xinpom c. 1800. OF SARDINIA KINGDOM , Mediterranean sq, OF NAPLES: ei Palermo. % 0 z z PRUSSIA Zz m = ss) cs) m Marseille CATALONIA POPULATION IN 1800 (MILLIONS) KINGDOM aural OF SICILY French forces Over the course of the 1812 Since coming to power in 1799, KEY 1,000,000 Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon had managed to extend France's © French territory 2,000,000 CASUALTIES soldiers from all over power in Europe dramatically, controlling the ruled directly NATIVE FRENCH 1804-15 the French Empire Low Countries, parts of Germany and Italy, from Paris 1812 SOLDIERS fought, and died, Spain, and Poland, although his attempts to Dependent 1804-15 in Napoleon's army. At encroach on Russia were met with a state 1812 its height, it comprised humiliating defeat in 1812. nearly 600,000 men. TES oN 1830: revolution a Paris n uprising FRANCE Bordeaux ANDORRA Barcelona Balearic Islands LY cad 5 FINLAND 1808-09: Russia invades, then annexes Finland Helsingfors 1814: Denmark forced to cede Norway to Sweden SWEDEN ae ound North Sea DENMARK SCHLESWIG- HOLSTEIN Danzig EAST RUSSIAN HANOVER” EMPIRE personal union with Britain | 1817-31: PRUSSIA Hanover Mf German student protest *@Berlin Posen Ss Warsaw * Cologne POLAND ® Brest-Litovsk 1831: "7 Belgium gains 1830-31: independence from national revolt oa * Prague Cracow oil iter OF ae Vt L : peasani WURTTEMBERG CRACOW uprising BAVARIA 1847: to Austria . GALICIA Munich Vienna ® Geneva AN EM PIRE © SWITZERLAND od "Lyon Buda Pest t SARDINIA cS 1821: © OMBARDY-| HUNGARY a, Piedmontese a % dmontese WENETTA TRANSYLVANIA -& x iMac ary ae MODENA Cc Massa AND e073, . * Belgrade WALLACHIA CARRARA Serbian revolts Buchstest mars LUCCA_._/ : 3 SERBIA in Wallachia and Moldavia BULGARIA RUMELIA Corsica OTTOMAN EMPIRE Salonica revolution SARDINIA Naples_“/ THRACE i Ae KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES 1821: MM revolution @ Rod = % % Corf Peaenicii. CREECE Palermo *, X lonian wi Islands 1815: to Britain 1821-33: War of Independence Malta 1800: to Britain n Se 8 44 ANY PLAN CONCEIVED IN MODERATION MUST FAIL WHEN THE CIRCUMSTANCES rk A RETURN TO WAR Many of the ongoing tensions between countries that arose in the 19th century gained momentum in the 20th. The assassination of the Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian nationalists in 1914 sparked World War I, a global conflict that would reshape Europe. ATLANTIC OCEAN 1914 The Vienna system was swept away by the wave of nationalism that crossed Europe from the mid-19th century. Countries such as Italy and Germany were unified by the time Europe sat on the brink of war in 1914. However, at Versailles in 1919, the map would be redrawn yet again. KEY @ German Empire BD Austro-Hungarian Empire Russian Empire I Netherlands 1B France WB United Kingdom 1 Norway ®@ Spain B® Switzerland W@ Sweden BB Belgium Rival 1 3 a 6 populations = The population of the Allied countries at the outset of World War | was more than double the population of the Central Powers. Montenegro © Portugal {Romania B italy I Ottoman Empire BB Albania Luxembourg @ Denmark © Serbia @ Bulgaria 5.4 million MILLION KEY ‘Allied Powers: Russia, France, Britain, Belgium, and Serbia Germany and Austria-Hungary Troop numbers The Allied Powers had far greater forces to mobilize in 1914 than the armies of the Central Powers. 263 Pie. Ende : Acartoon about the Stamp Act shows the Treasury Secretary, George Grenville, with es a child's coffin bearing the words “Miss Ame-Stamp, born in 1765, died 1766”. THIS YEAR WOULD BE ONE OF GROWING DISCONTENT with colonial rule within British and Spanish colonies in the Americas. In May, the residents of the Andean city of Quito (in today’s Ecuador] protested against the imposition of a new system of tax administration aimed at increasing revenues for Spain's depleted treasury. The rioters drove out the royal officials, installing in their place a government that controlled the city until troops arrived a year later to reestablish royal control. Farther to the north, Britain's American colonists were growing angry at similar revenue-raising exercises. Following the unpopular Sugar Act (see 1764) was the Stamp Act. This piece of legislation stipulated that all American colonists would have to pay a tax on every piece of printed paper they used. This meant that products from legal documents to newspapers and 44 IF OUR TRADE BE TAXED, WHY NOT OUR LANDS, OR PRODUCE, IN SHORT, EVERYTHING WE POSSESS?... 99 Samuel Adams, American politician, on the Sugar Act, 1764 : playing cards would carry the : duty. The colonists feared the tax | represented a form of press : censorship. They also resented © the tax’s introduction, not so : much because of the cost, but : because the Crown was beginning : to look at internal American » commerce and not just external ? trade for additional revenue, » something not done before. In : addition, Britain was imposing : taxes without the consent of the : colonists, who responded with : protests, and the act was © repealed the following year. Meanwhile, in Lancashire, » England, a weaver and carpenter » named James Hargreaves : (1720-78) had completed work : onan invention known as the spinning jenny. The device was = animprovement on the spinning : wheel because it could power : multiple spindles. Hargreaves | supposedly came up with the idea : for the device after observing a i spinning wheel lying overturned : on the ground. He realised that j by creating a machine that was : horizontal, more spindles could » be added. The spinning jenny : enabled cloth production to _ increase by eightfold, and other : inventors continued to modify : Hargreave’s design to make the : machine even more efficient. In Germany, Joseph Il (1741-90) » became Holy Roman Emperor » andalso co-ruler of the Habsburg » family lands with his mother : Maria Theresa until her death | in 1780. Joseph later began a | program of reform that included © the emancipation of serfs and : improvement of the education | system, a reflection of the : Enlightenment works he read. : He was considered to be : an “enlightened despot”. : Dawn of the machine age : A woman working at a spinning : jenny inan early 19th-century mill. : James Hargreaves’ invention : revolutionized cloth production. Jacobites toast Charles Stuart—“Bonnie Prince Charlie”—in Edinburgh. Many of his supporters were Scottish. JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART DIED IN 1766 at the Palazzo Muti in ; Rome, having failed in his mission to be restored to the British thrones as James Ill. His birth in 1688 had initiated the Glorious Revolution, forcing his father James II (1633-1701) to take his family to France to live in exile. At the heart of the matter was the Stuart faith: Catholicism. After the royal family had fled, the English Parliament passed the Act of Settlement of 1689, barring any Roman Catholics from succession to the throne. The Stuarts, however, had many supporters in England, Scotland, and Ireland. They were known as Jacobites after “Jacobus,” the Latin for James. Several attempts were made to return James Ill, or the “Old Pretender” as he became known, to the throne, the most notable being the risings of 1715 and 1745. All proved unsuccessful. Over the course of the Old Pretender’s exile his son, Charles Edward Stuart (1720-88)—known as “Bonnie Prince Charlie” or the “Young Pretender”—also took up his father’s fight, but to Little avail. Charles never recovered from his defeat at the Battle of Culloden (the last clash of the 1745 rising—see 1744-47), although he made later efforts to secure support from France and the Holy Roman Empire for further uprisings. By the time the Old Pretender died and Charles became the official claimant to Bonnie Prince Charlie's star and garter The star and garter worn by Charles Stuart indicated he was the son of a legitimate sovereign. It was awarded while the family was in exile. the Stuart throne, the battle that had consumed both their lives had been lost, though admiration for the cause continued. In Denmark, Christian VII (1749-1808) became king shortly before his seventeenth birthday. Later that year, he married Caroline Matilda, one of the sisters of Britain's George Ill. His reign was marked by his mental instability and debauchery. During his early days of rule, the German doctor Johann Freidrich Struensee (1737-72) infiltrated the court and exercised much influence over the weak king, eventually enacting policy and having an affair with the queen. Struensee was finally arrested and executed. The later years of Christian’s reign were inname only, and from 1784 his son, Frederick VI (1768-1839), acted as regent. A depiction of the Jesuits being expelled from the kingdom of Spain. Jesuit settlements in the New World The Society of Jesus was instrumenial in the settlement of territory in the Americas and by 1767 had extensive missions. LIKE THE PORTUGUESE NEARLY A DECADE EARLIER, the Spanish Crown grew concerned about the Jesuits and the order's activities in the American colonies. One of the underlying causes for concern had been Jesuit resistance to paying tithes to the Crown, and this reluctance was symptomatic of longer-running struggles between the order and the king. At issue was the Jesuits growing influence and wealth in Spanish America through their schools, extensive landholding, and agricultural success. Claiming he was “moved by weighty reasons,” Charles II| decided to expel the Jesuits from his realm. This enabled the Crown to confiscate valuable Jesuit land and property. Thousands of the order’s members fled to the Papal States and Corsica. CAPTAIN JAMES COOK (1728-79) made his name in the Royal Navy with his excellent navigational skills and cartography of Canadian waters during the Seven Years’ War (1756-63). These accomplishments paved the way for his next assignment—an expedition to the South Pacific. The mission was organized by the Royal Society, with the Admiralty providing the ship. The Endeavour set off from Plymouth on August 25 and arrived in Tahiti—via Madeira, Rio de Janeiro, and Cape Horn—on April 13, 1769. Cook then headed further south encountering the island later known as New Zealand. He eventually sailed from there to the unknown eastern coast of Australia where he landed in what became known as Botany Bay. The Endeavour returned to England in 1771 and Captain Cook's expedition was hailed a success. y THE NUMBER OF CREW AND CIVILIANS WHO SET OFF WITH CAPTAIN COOK Captain James Cook and his crew at the watering place in the Bay of Good Success, Tierra del Fuego. As Cook was sailing the Pacific, other changes were afoot in Britain. Reflecting the growing desire for knowledge [the Enlightenment), the first volume of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, was published in Edinburgh. It was “compiled upon a new plan in which the different Sciences and Arts are digested into distinct Treatises or Systems.” It soon sold out and by 1771 a three- volume set was completed. Meanwhile, in London, former soldier Philip Astley (1742-1814) opened a riding school in 1768 called Halfpenny Hatch based in Lambeth, where he performed tricks on horseback in a ring. He added musicians, acrobats, and The Endeavour took Captain James \\ Hemisphere. : clowns to provide entertainment © during the interludes, and the modern circus was born. In Russia, events had taken a » serious turn. Tensions with the © Ottoman Empire had pushed the » two into the Russo-Turkish War : of 1768-74. The root cause was : Catherine the Great's refusal to ' comply with the treaty ending the © previous war with the Ottomans » (1736-39), as well as her : interventions in Poland. The Ottomans declared war after » Russia sacked a Turkish town. Further east, Prithvi Narayan © Shah (1723-75) brought together : kingdoms in the Kathmandu : Valley to create the kingdom : of Nepal. A model of the ship that \\. Cook to the Southern Detail of the bell tower at the Mission of San Diego de Alcala in California. THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA showed no sign of abating, though its inhabitants still knew very little about the vast western territory. In 1769, an American named Daniel Boone (1734-1820) set off for a hunting expedition in present-day Kentucky, an area virtually unknown to white settlers. Along the way he worked out a better route along the Cumberland Gap, a plateau in the Appalachian mountains. This became part of the Wilderness Road, a trail blazed by Boone and the Transylvania Company, and later used by settlers to cross the mountains and reach the Kentucky territory. Boone and his family moved to Kentucky in 1775 and established one of the first towns, Boonesborough. He spent the rest of his life working as a hunter and explorer. The Spanish, too, were looking to expand their territory in North America. They had claimed a region in present-day southern California that Charles III was eager to populate with Spanish settlers after rumors that Russia was planning to move into the area. To this end he sent Franciscan friars to establish missions in the region. Spanish Franciscan Junipero Serra (1713-84) began work ona series of missions throughout Spain's California territory. The first one, established in 1769, was San Diego de Alcala, and over the course of the next 54 years a chain of 20 further missions was built along the California coast. An engraving depicting the violence of the Boston Massacre. AFTER THE FAILURE OF THE STAMP ACT (see 1765) the British government was still left with the question of how to raise money in the colonies. The answer came ina series of acts formulated by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Charles Townshend (1725-67). The legislation included duties on paint, paper, glass, lead, and tea imported to the American colonies, as wellasa reorganization of customs to cut down on smuggling. In addition, another act suspended the New York legislature because it refused to comply with the Quartering Act, which demanded that colonial assemblies provide basic necessities for British soldiers in the territories. On March 5,a group of dock workers began to : Marie Antoinette miniature » Acameo of Marie Antoinette, who : would become one of the most infamous queens of France. : harass some British soldiers on ee The Cromford Mill set up by Richard Arkwright in Derbyshire. THE BIRTH OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION came a step closer when Englishman Richard Arkwright (1732-92) worked with clockmaker John Kay to develop a spinning frame. By 1771 they had decided to use a waterwheel to power it—hence the name “water frame” and built a factory—Cromford MillL— in northern England, making this the first water-powered textile mill. The venture was a success and the textile factories became profitable, leading Arkwright to open a series of factories in Engand and Scotland. Arkwright’s inventions are considered an important part of the Industrial Revolution, which transformed Britain from an agricultural economy to a manufacturing one. The mills saw the development of the mass-production factory system which would be adopted all over the world. whose constitution and reforms angered the nobility and led to his death. Vilna Posene® ~ PRUSSIA ce #Vienna HABSBURG EMPIRE POLAND FACED the first of three partitions of its territory. This the Ottoman Turks in the Russo- alarmed Austria and Prussia. Frederick Il aimed to shift Russian expansion from Turkish territory to the Polish-Lithuanian Union, which was weakened by civil war. On August 5, Russia, Prussia, and Austria signed a treaty—ratified » patrol near a customs house in : Boston, and a crowd formed. More : soldiers arrived and opened fire : onthe colonists—the majority of whom were unarmed—killing five : and wounding a further six. This * episode became known as the : Boston Massacre and fuelled _ resentment between Britain : and its American colonies. In Europe, the Dauphin of France, the future Louis XVI » (1754-93), married the daughter : of Maria Theresa of Austria, Marie | Antoinette. They were 15 and 14 : years old, respectively, at the time. = THE AGE AT WHICH MARIE ANTOINETTE MARRIED LOUIS XVI The Industrial Revolution was an economic transformation that took place in Europe during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, changing rural, agrarian economies to ones based on manufactured goods, which were often made in cities. This transformation began in England, and was facilitated by the arrival of inventions such as the spinning jenny (see 1765] and the use of steam power (see 1775], which led to the growth of industries such as textiles in cities like Manchester. New technologies soon spread throughout Europe, and other countries such as France, Germany, and Belgium were seeing similar economic shifts as agricultural workers left the countryside for jobs in growing urban centers, or to work in the coal mines that powered the urban factories. \ ‘eGrodno #Minsk OTTOMAN EMPIRE KEY © Potand © To Austria @ To Prussia @ To Russia RUSSIAN EMPIRE . ‘Smolensk Partition of Poland Russia, Austria, and Prussia ’ recieved parts of Poland in the first partition. by the Polish legislature (Sejm)— : depriving Poland of a third of its resulted from Russia’s defeats of = land, of which all three powers : took a share. Turkish War (see 1768), which had | (1746-92) took the throne, though : the monarchy had been weakened © by a government faction wishing : to limit the Crown's power. In : response, Gustavus staged a coup : and issued a new constitution. He © introduced judicial reforms and : strengthened Sweden's naw. _ However, he was unpopular with In Sweden, Gustavus III the nobility, of whom he was i critical, and was denounced for : his expenditure of public funds. | He was assassinated in 1792. In England, a legal case was : mounted over a slave, James Somersett, who had been brought : from Jamaica to England in 1771 © and was due to be sent back. The : Lord Chief Justice, Lord Mansfield, © ruled Somersett must be freed. | This set a precedent that people + could not be taken out of England : against their will. oF so get sh a ea CORES ae ne? * eo at oo x s o Ry © NS oe oF ak FOr am oF ‘a oe BX oF as® “ Ne oo sate sero vig et yoy oe SO Fg” Fhe ah 5 3 S S) é This painting by Vasily Perov shows Cossack leader, Emelyan Pugachev, holding court and passing judgment on his enemies. BRITAIN’S AMERICAN COLONISTS were becoming increasingly agitated by the number of restrictions being placed on them—even if some had unexpected benefits, such as a reduction in the price of tea. Indeed, because of the Tea Act of 1773, which allowed direct exportation from India to North America, as well as having it taxed at source rather than upon arrival, American colonists would pay less than anyone in Britain for their tea. However, there were many colonial merchants who dealt in smuggled tea and so faced ruin if legal tea became cheaper than Boston Tea Party Merchants dump chests of tea worth £10,000 from an East India Company ship into Boston harbor. their contraband goods. They put : pressure on East India ships to not dock in American ports. The Dartmouth, however, proceeded to anchor in Boston. On December : 16, angry traders took 342 chests of tea worth £10,000 from the Dartmouth and tipped it into the city’s harbor. This was heralded as a key moment of resistance to British governance. Russia also was experiencing unrest, led by a Cossack called Emelyan Pugachev (1742-75). Pugachev served in the Seven Years’ War, though he deserted in 1762. He traveled around Russia, claiming to be the deposed emperor Peter Ill, and promising to abolish serfdom. Through his travels he managed to rally about 25,000 willing troops. Despite early victories against Catherine the Great's army, his troops were eventually overpowered. He was executed on January 10, 1775. The Ottoman Empire was facing upheaval in Egypt. Ali Bey al-Kabir (1728-73) had been Egypt's de facto ruler, but in 1769 he deposed the Ottoman governor of Egypt and tried to make the country independent. He also sent troops into the territories of Palestine and Syria, but by 1773 he was defeated by Ottoman forces and died from his wounds while in prison in Cairo. On his ship in the South Atlantic, Captain James Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle. He had set out on another mission the year before, in a ship called the Resolution, determined to explore the vast and unknown areas of the southern hemisphere. The funeral procession of Louis XV (1710-74), whose nickname had been “the well-beloved.” Louis XV ruled France for almost 60 years. IN THE AMERICAN COLONIES, representatives from each of the 13 colonies except Georgia met in Philadelphia to discuss what to do about a slew of legislation that became known as the Intolerable Acts. These acts were issued in retaliation for the dumping of tea in Boston harbor (see 1773) and growing American rebellion. They stipulated that Boston harbor must be closed to all but British ships; that the colonists must house British troops if necessary; that British officials would not be tried for crimes in the colonies but in Britain instead, allowing them to act with impunity; and self- government in Boston was to be stopped. Also included was the Quebec Act, which enlarged the boundaries of the Canadian province, permitted a degree of self-rule through a governor and appointed councillors, guaranteed religious freedom for the many Catholic settlers, and allowed the continuation of French civil law in conjunction with British criminal law. This act added insult to injury for many American settlers. They objected to the expansion of Quebec into territory they believed was theirs, and many were suspicious of the type of government that had been installed there. The Continental Congress—a group of delegates drawn from each of the thirteen colonies—decided to take action, and agreed to boycott British goods and trade, sending a strong message to the English king, George Ill. : Louis XVI The king of France, Louis XVI, wearing his coronation robes. He : came to power at just 17 years old. In France, Louis XVI became the © king at the age of 17 after the © death of his grandfather, Louis XV. Meanwhile, fighting between _ Russia and the Ottoman Empire : came to an end. They signed the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji in July, © which granted Russia the right of © free navigation in the Black Sea : and recognized the Crimean Peninsula as independent, meaning Crimea was free from © Ottoman rule. The region soon aligned itself with Russia. The Ottomans faced further » disruption with the death in © October of Sultan Mustafa III (1717-74), succeeded by his brother, Abdul Hamid I © (r. 1774-89). When Mustafa ' became ruler, the empire was in : decline, as earlier economic © growth had faltered. The situation : was exacerbated by the costly and disastrous war with Russia. 2 eo? a8 ee 2 <7 Pee 3S we oe soe Ke oho” wo 8 oat oe ES Rue ne cy ee RS ea = os o Bon RS oe x ‘S Qn? oof Re ae SF one? we os wr? ee or ge He he ee ao es) eroe oe ee oe rst Ro Ri ae ae a 1770 Py a or 3" oP 3 yr? oe NS ORS Vian nc) Fe. go" Pe” 0? aes Woo hd 62 con RS aS es Cx so" cw? wl oe ww Or) ew oe O RS co ~ EO gat & a Tey as $ et oS 3 aoe oe Nm See” ow’ vo Pow Coe et CAO > ive o oo fe ~ s 2 x SS ROY ea 0% Goh a oo OF ae FP 09 & Sao RC) ae oe BORG cs Po? oor We Oe A Wee = Ca ore os ree 3 Rae ce! ~ Oe? ae RS ew SO" ge 2 w Ko eS Pa D Bg) 44 LET JUSTICE BE DONE THOUGH THE HEAVENS SHOULD FALL 99 John Adams, American statesman, December 5. 1777 The opening shots of war between the British troops (in red) and the American colonial militia [in the foreground) on Lexington Common in Massachusetts, by English artist William Barnes Wollen (1857-1936). THE ANGRY RECEPTION GIVEN TO LEGISLATION and discontent over the issue of “taxation without representation” in the 13 American colonies had begun to worry British officials and they feared an armed rebellion. On April 18, General Thomas Gage (1721-87), who was also Governor of Massachusetts, sent British soldiers (known as “redcoats”] to seize the guns and ammunition being stored by the colonists in the town of smokestack Concord, just outside of Boston. | Aware that the British might execute such a plan, the colonists had set up a system of alerts should any event come to pass. : Once news was received of the : planned raid on Concord, Boston silversmith and engraver Paul : Revere (1735-1818] set off from i the city that night to warn fellow - of steam | | ie j | organizers that British troops : were on the march. Minutemen ) (militia who were ready to fight : “ata minute's notice”) grabbed : their guns and waited for the i arrival of the redcoats. On the morning of April 19 the : “shot heard around the world” was fired and battle ensued between colonists and British troops in Lexington and nearby Concord. : The American Revolutionary | War had begun. Fighting continued through the summer. Colonial forces, under = the command of General George : Washington (1732-99) captured ee : key points near Lake Champlain, eentiole | but the British defeated them at spent steam admission | the Battle of Bunker Hill on June escapes via andrelease : 17, despite losing half their troops : in the process. Within the colonies the war was divisive, Not all colonists were willing to fight against Britain and : soon people were divided into patriots and loyalists. Some 20 percent of the population of the 13 colonies were estimated to have supported the Crown. Within this | number were American Indians : and slaves. In the case of the : former, some tribes sided with the : British because they were valued trading partners. Many also thought their interests, such Steam power James Watt's work on steam engines allowed for the development of steam-powered trains. Continental soldier's hat This style of tricorne was worn by American colonists fighting for the Continental army. as territorial boundaries, stood a better chance of being protected by Britain. For slaves, the incentive to side with the British Crown was the possibility of emancipation— they had been told they would be freed if they fought for the king. Some residents, such as the Quakers, opposed warfare. Many others simply wanted to avoid participation in either side of the conflict. Halfway around the world, British East India Company troops were embroiled in the domestic troubles of the Marathas (see 1758). The First Anglo-Maratha War [1775-82] was the result of the East India Company's intervention into the Maratha Confederacy, a union of five clans that came to power after the collapse of the kingdom of Maharashtra. This war left many issues unresolved and tensions would rise again between the British and Marathas, leading to two further wars (see 1803). In Britain, Scottish inventor and engineer James Watt (1736-1819) had struck upa business partnership with Matthew Boulton (1728-1809), : who owned an engineering works. : Watt had improved the Newcomen | steam engine, which had been : around since the turn of the : century. He developed a separate : condensing chamber for the : engine, which made it lose less : steam and be more efficient. In i partnership with Boulton, Watt began to manufacture these : engines in 1775. At this point : steam engines were used mostly : to pump water from mines, but Watt saw more potential | uses for steam and continued : working on engines for the rest of his life. His inventions allowed © later engineers to revolutionize : transportation and he thereby : effectively laid the foundations of : modern industry. THOMAS PAINE Thomas Paine (1737-1809) was born in Norfolk, England. He emigrated to America and advocated independence. He returned to England and wrote Rights of Man, defending the French Revolution, which cemented his reputation as a radical propagandist. P< Oe os se Sd rhe ot RS a eee 2 oo got poo col aed? ge pera ero Fh OM oho Se aha? oe ier oh co & a eid RO i s a Saoreo ww BES econ IPO fos 00 oye 9 x . ote Ze so 9s WO gd Pee Pe oF CaN Pe poo as Pree oo Noms roe FS yt ered Fe’ S se? ss OS Oat @ ore et ed Po ae ot 3 268 Ecstatic colonists tear down a statue of King George III in New York in celebration of the signing of the Declaration of Independence. 46 WE HOLD THESE TRUTHS TO BI THAT ALL MEN ARE = SELF-EVIDENT, CREATED EQUAL, THAT THEY ARE ENDOWED BY THE R CREATOR WITH CERTAI N UNALIENABLE RIGHTS, THAT AMONG THESE ARE LIFE, LIBERTY AND THE PURSUIT OF HAPPINESS. 99 US Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776 AS THE AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY | WAR WAS GAINING MOMENTUM, on July 4 the First Continental Congress issued a Declaration of Independence, formally announcing the separation of the North American colonies from British rule and calling this collective the United States. The document outlined reasons for the decision to separate from Britain while asserting certain natural rights. The ideas put forth in this declaration—that all men were created equal and had the right to “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”—would not, however, apply to everyone. Enslaved Africans—some of whom had been fighting on the Americans’ side—were excluded. The year 1776 also witnessed the publication of many influential = works. In January, the writer and radical thinker Thomas Paine (see panel, opposite], who had been living only a short time in Philadelphia, issued a pamphlet entitled Common Sense, calling for American independence and the establishment of a republican © government. The pamphlet, : initially published anonymously, : was hugely influential both : nationally and internationally : and hada significant role in : furthering the cause. In Britain, £ Scottish philosopher Adam © Smith (1723-90) published An : Enquiry into the the Nature and : Causes of the Wealth of Nations, © which outlined the advantages | of asystem of free trade, : changing the way politicians © and the public thought about : economic expansion. : Also in this year, the first volume : of The History of the Decline and : Fallof the Roman Empire by = English historian Edward Gibbon : (1737-94) was published. The © work struck a chord and was a success. It was also noteworthy for Gibbon’s methodology, which | was objective and meticulous | in his use of reference material, making it the yardstick for : future historians. A further five : volumes were published over : the following decade. A colonial map of the city Colonia del Sacramento in Uruguay. IN BAVARIA, there was unrest over the succession to the throne. Elector Maximilian III Joseph (1727-77), last of the Wittelsbach line, died, and Charles Theodore (1724-99], Elector Palatine was crowned. Charles had no legitimate heir but several bastards for whom he sought land. He signed a treaty with Joseph II of Austria to cede Lower Bavaria to Austria in exchange for part of the Austrian Netherlands. This angered Frederick Il of Prussia and in 1778, the War of the Bavarian Succession broke out, ending in 1779. Spain and Portugal finally settled ongoing disputes in the Rio dela Plata region with the First Treaty of San Ildefonso. Spain ceded territory in the Amazon basin in return for control over the Banda Oriental lin present-day Uruguay). Charles Theodor The Elector Palatine, Charles Theodore, had no legitimate heirs but he had several illegitimate ones. He proved an unpopular king. Aview of ie opulent interior of Scala opera house in Milan. Clubs used against Cook Traditional Hawaiian clubs like these may have been used in the attack that caused James Cook's death. WITH TWO SUCCESSFUL VOYAGES TO HIS NAME, Captain James Cook (see 1773) set out fora third in 1776, this time to search for the Northwest Passage, a fabled Arctic shortcut that was supposed to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. By 1778 he had made the first European contact with the Hawaiian islands. He continued on to the Arctic circle, but failed to find the passage. He later sailed back to Hawaii, where a dispute over a missing boat led to his being killed by Hawaiians in 1779. In Milan, a grand opera house was opened—La Scala. |t was founded under the patronage of Maria Theresa of Austria (the city was under Austrian rule) to replace a theater that had been destroyed in a fire. The new theater was built on the site of the church of Santa Maria alla Scala and financed by wealthy patrons. It opened on August 3 with a performance of L'Europa riconosciuta, an opera by Antonio Salieri (1750-1825). A Xhosa family, from a painting by French naturalist Pierre Sonnerat. THE RELOCATION OF THE BOERS (Dutch-speaking settlers) to remote regions hundred of miles north of Cape Town was causing problems for the Xhosa people. These tribes had settled in the territory long before the Boers’ arrival. Both groups were cattle farmers and competed for rich pasture land for their herds. Attempts were made to establish a border between the Fish and Sundays Rivers, although both groups violated any agreement. Tension turned to violence, with the Xhosa raiding Boer cattle and murdering some herdsmen, possibly in retaliation for the death Boer house Dutch settlers in South Africa moved away from Cape Town, deep into rural areas where they raised livestock. of a tribesman. The Boers then attacked and captured more than 5,000 head of cattle. These skirmishes, amounting to the first Xhosa War, did not resolve the root cause of the dispute— access to grazing lands and water. Intermittent battle continued for almost a century. > s NS) Pe er go Rn a ® ool a ooh co.) CS ® Bs SP KF ACP yh FCO xe ea ies Oe on oS o& Oto os < ek Sac g COC h OEP oo oh cot ord oP he ah a8 SE) SH e0™ oa? BP HOE KO 3 a a o Ce yh eh OF sc Pye 007, Eo? FO” oo” Ee? 80 ewer ge 8 BFW ped ot eo ot Rata GF ya 0 CC GE GPS oo oN so cot et i Hy hh Ss ye 0 es ys wee os eS ot < oe or os 3% oN et gee we, ek o Cain wr ae ES oot VF oP PLT gt NO & dBA? in OST gn ONS oF ooo oF Sot 6 2 0h * oct! OVW Ne? ne pF 3? SS 597 sea Beto oF oe co" S oo Pg? "> Ae! PY 6? 0? AS RC oF 3 WO goo pe sor? Hace aS oS) 5 . 269 Amural from Daria Daulat Bagh, the summer palace belonging to Tipu f Sultan, ruler of the southwestern Indian kingdom of Mysore from 1782-99. AS BRITAIN’S EAST INDIA COMPANY attempted to extend its reach outside of Bengal, it often met resistance from Indian princely states. This was especially true of the southwestern kingdom of Mysore, which was under the rule of the powerful Haidar Ali Khan (1722-82). Disputes over territory and had led to the First Mysore War (1767-69), which was soon followed by the Second Mysore War (1780-84). The fighting did not completely settle the conflict between them, which continued until 1799. Unrest in India was not the only military preoccupation for Britain, which was now fighting on many fronts. In addition to the ongoing war in North America, dispute broke out with the Dutch. The Fourth Anglo-Dutch War (1780-84), which saw no actual fighting, was a direct consequence = of the conflict in America. The Dutch were supplying arms to the rebelling colonists, and a dispute erupted over Britain’s seizure of Dutch ships. The TUPAC AMARU II [c. 1742-81) Born José Gabriel Condorcanqui in Cuzco, Peru, around 1742, Tupac Amaru Il renamed himself after the last Inca leader, who ruled the Incan Empire from 1545-72. Of mestizo (Indian and Spanish) heritage, he fought against the colonial regime to gain better conditions for the indigenous population of Peru. : Dutch maintained Britain should : respect their neutrality, but the British did not agree. The North American colonists were not alone in their struggle, : as their southern neighbors in Peru took up arms in the Tupac : Amaru revolt (1780-82), which was prompted by dissatisfaction * with the Spanish colonial regime. Some 75,000 Indians and Creoles © (those born in Peru but of Spanish © descent) rose up in protest at their : treatment. The leader Tupac Amaru II (see box, below) was : captured and killed in 1781, but : it took another year and 60,000 | Spanish troops to quell the unrest. In Africa, the kingdom of : Buganda, located on the northern shore of Lake Ukerewe (Lake » Victoria), emerged as a regional power as it expanded its territory. | Around the same time, the Masai, who occupied the southeastern © side of the lake, were also : becoming a significant presence : in the region and were moving farther south and east—helped by » their large, organized warrior class. Lord Cornwallis, left, surrenders his sword to George Washington, right, after the British defeat at the Battle of Yorktown. THE ONGOING WAR between Britain and North American colonists took a decisive turn at the battle of Yorktown, Virginia, on October 19. The Continental Army had received a boost from French support the previous year, and the Comte de Rochambeau (1725- 1807] led troops alongside the American General George Washington (1732-99). Their combined force of ground soldiers meant that when rebel forces took 20 600 American British 52 French Deaths at the Battle of Yorktown Yorktown took a high toll on British troops and proved decisive in the quest to end British rule in America. their positions on September 28 General Charles Cornwallis (1738-1805) was outnumbered by more than two to one, and his reinforcements failed to arrive in time. That, along with a French naval blockade, gave Cornwallis no option but to surrender. Although this was the last major battle of the Revolutionary War, official recognition of American independence would not come until later. The politics of the American colonies was changing. The Articles of Confederation had been ratified earlier in the year, on March 1. The process of ratification had started in 1777 under the Second Continental Congress. The agreement set up _ a “firm league of friendship” for what were to be known as the United States of America, while outlining what the responsibilities of the central government would be. The document would eventually be replaced with the US Constitution (see 1787). In Europe, tensions between the Dutch and British led to a convoy of British ships setting off from India on August 9 with orders to destroy Dutch settlements in Sumatra. When the British arrived, the small Dutch population in the outposts surrendered immediately and all the Dutch factories and warehouses in Padang were turned over to the British crown. Meanwhile, colonial subjects in the Viceroyalty of New : Granada—which comprised present-day Colombia, Venezuela, : Panama, and Ecuador—were discontent with the Spanish regime. They revolted over mounting taxes on tobacco and American riflemen : This cartoon depicts an American rifleman as worn out and badly : equipped. However, these soldiers : defeated British regular troops. + alcohol in what became known : as the Comunero Rebellion. » Plans to march on Bogota were : abandoned after a deal was - reached over taxes but the : Spanish viceroy then attacked the comuneros and killed two » of their leaders. Revolution of an intellectual kind : was taking place in Prussia with © the publication of the Critique of : Pure Reason by the philosopher | Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). His » work challenged existing notions : about the nature of knowledge. 44 SCIENCE IS ORGANIZED KNOWLEDGE. WISDOM IS ORGANIZED LIFE. 99 Immanuel Kant, German philosopher, from Critique of Pure Reason, 1781 Chakri Mahaprasad Hall in Bangkok was built under Rama |. WHILE THE VICTORIOUS FORMER COLONIES OF NORTH AMERICA entered into complicated and protracted negotiations with Britain over their official recognition and their future, Ireland found that it was also ina position to receive a new political settlement from the British government. The Declaratory Act of 1720 and Poynings’ Law of 1494 were repealed. These laws had been designed to place Ireland under the rule of the English Parliament. With many of the restrictions in these Acts lifted, Ireland was able to establish some degree of Legislative independence. Despite the new freedoms, however, political participation was only open to Protestants, and the unrest this arrangement eventually prompted in the largely Catholic territory meant that self-rule had a short life span. In Siam (Thailand), a new ruling dynasty was established—the Chakri—after a power struggle following the demise of the previous ruler, King Taksin, who had left no heir. The Chakri remains Thailand's ruling house. It was established by Rama I (1737- 1809), who had been the chief commander in the army and had won loyal support fighting against the Burmese. Rama! spent much of his reign on the reconstruction of Siam after years of warfare, building extensively, including a royal palace and Buddhist temples, though he remained a strong military leader, and repelled five further invasions from Burma. : ¥ . ’ is Sei f us This bronze frieze depicts the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, in which Britain recognized the independence of its former American colonies. NEARLY TWO YEARS AFTER THE SURRENDER at Yorktown, the Treaty of Paris, which formally ended the Revolutionary War, was finally signed on September 3 between Britain and its former American colony, calling for them to “forget all past misunderstanding and differences.” The document gave formal recognition to the United States and established the boundaries of the 13 states that it comprised. Although the settlement saw the establishment of the United States, there was stilla significant European presence, with Spain holding large territories to the west. Another treaty was signed between Britain, France, and Spain, in which Britain surrendered Tobago and Senegal to France and agreed to Spain KEY Western Territory ©) United States States of the Union This map shows the 13 original United States as recognized by the Treaty of Paris. US borders were extended to the Mississippi River under the treaty. retaining Minorca—which it had regained the year before—and its territories in Florida. In asmall village called Annonay, in the southeast of France, two brothers were about to make BRITISH. NORTH AMERICA NEW HAMPSHIRE MASSACHUSETTS \ RHODE ISLAND \— CONNECTICUT \__NEW JERSEY \\_ DELAWARE MARYLAND _ NORTH CAROLINA \___ SOUTH CAROLINA ATLANTIC OCEAN Gulf of Mexico aviation history. On June 4, Joseph (1740-1810) and Etienne Montgolfier (1745-99) had the first public trial of a hot air : balloon officially recorded. Only a couple of months later, and after some design modifications, they : gave a demonstration of their balloon in front of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette at Versailles. In the September 19 flight—one of several flights made in 1783— they put a sheep, a duck, anda rooster in the balloon’s basket to see how the animals would fare at a high altitude. The first manned free flight, when the balloon was not tethered to the ground, took place on November 21 of the same year. Balloon ride This engraving shows a later Montgolfier balloon, named Le Flesselles, ascending over Lyon with seven passengers, on January 19, 1784. One of those on board was Joseph Montgolfier. Acartoon depicts the political implications of the India Act. BECAUSE THE BRITISH PRESENCE IN INDIA had evolved through the East India Company (EIC], the 18th century saw a growing tension between the EIC and the British government. The India Act 1773 had already brought the company under tighter control, but its demands for government money to cover the cost of its many battles had prompted further action. The India Act 1784, which was ushered in under the government of British prime minister William Pitt the Younger (1759-1806), placed the EIC under even more scrutiny by establishing a Board of Control to look after civil, military, and 44 EVERY RUPEE OF PROFIT MADE BY AN ENGLISHMAN IS LOST FOR EVER TO INDIA. 99 Edmund Burke, British politician, on the East India Company, 1783 GI financial affairs, which would include members of the British government. The Act also stipulated that trade and territorial rule were to be two separate activities. Legislation that followed in the 19th century went even further, abolishing the EIC’s monopoly and opening up trade, as well as allowing the settlement of Christian missionaries in the region. 271 The power loom transformed the textile industry. IN 1784, EDMUND CARTWRIGHT (1743-1823), an English clergyman, paid a visit toa cotton-spinning mill established by Richard Arkwright (see 1771). What he saw inspired him to invent similar machines to weave textiles. By 1785 he had patented his first power loom. Cartwright’s loom became an integral part of the textile industry in Britain. The design was later improved by the American businessman Francis Cabot Lowell, who had seen the looms in operation on a visit to Britain, and its use was widespread on both sides of the Atlantic after 1820. In Burma, the Konbaung dynasty's King Bodawpaya (1745-1819) had captured the coastal kingdom of Arakan the previous year. Bolstered by this victory, he decided to move to the east and invade the kingdom of Siam (Thailand), but was defeated. Round-the-world expedition Jean-Francois de Galaup, the comte de Lapérouse, was sent by Louis XVI on an expedition to map out the uncharted waters of the Pacific. Frederick II of Prussia was feared and admired throughout Europe for his military prowess. THE US WAS EXPERIENCING AN ERA OF TECHNOLOGICAL innovation. In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, inventor John Fitch (1743-1798) had set up the Steamboat Company with the aim of designing a steam-powered boat. Fitch found success ahead of his rivals in August 1787 when the Perseverance successfully sailed on the Delaware River. By 1790, a fledgling steamer service was running between Philadelphia and Trenton, New Jersey, but Fitch struggled as he had trouble attracting investors. It would take the more advanced boat designs and superior business acumen of Robert Fulton (1765-1815) before steamboat travel became a viable commercial enterprise. | First steamboat : John Fitch managed to take steam-engine technology and apply it to boats. However, commercial success Was some way off. Shipping still had its perils and pirate raids were common. US : merchants wishing to trade in the : Mediterranean markets risked : attack and the Barbary corsairs : were particularly feared. On : July 23, the US signed a treaty i with Morocco which assured safe | passage for US ships in exchange | for trading on equal terms. In Europe, Prussia mourned the death of Frederick Il. He had turned Prussia into a formidable power, and reshaped Europe's : political balance. 44 AN EDUCATED PEOPLE CAN BE EASILY GOVERNED. 99 Attributed to Frederick II, king of Prussia a we? ae? x ge é eS ot we a Sra OF Oh & RS ies Peo Boe? fh oe? vo FN? oF ooh oo oes e770 oe! ao oF oe oA ceo) Hog? He at oo om « oe we of < es g v ? s 3 x 32° 0 3 re? ee 3 Byer Cae Rt WE Fh ot RCs aan B® ne Od” et ROOT an oe? yo? Nr YO ANY oD" pe* PPE 07 ke ot FV Pee 3 = a ) RNa aers pew ss oe NO* OD FS ho ES « Res & Cs oh 32 TWN GR eo yo yee? ee Pe” 272 3 wee & This 19th-century engraving depicts the coastal settlement of Sierra Leone, West Africa. AFTER THE RULING IN THE SOMERSETT CASE [see 1772), which established that slaves who arrived in Britain were free, many slaves were abandoned by their masters and the “black poor” of London were left with no means of support. Abolitionist Granville Sharp (1735-1813) arranged for a free settlement to be established in Sierra Leone, West Africa. The ship Nautilus returned some 400 former slaves to Africa. These initial settlers were later joined by slaves from Nova Scotia, Canada, who had fought for the British in the American Revolutionary War. At the same time, West Africa was still rife with other European slavers. In the US, there was a growing call for astronger central government and, from May to September, the Constitutional Convention met, ostensibly in order to amend the Articles of Confederation (see 1781). But US CONSTITUTION AFRICA SIERRA LEONE . ATLANTIC OCEAN Slave settlement : Sierra Leone is located on the west : coast of Africa. Previously a trading : post for slavery it became a place | of settlement for freed slaves. : instead, the delegates drew up a new system of government. They _ created a bicameral legislature : in which all states would be equally represented in the Senate and proportionally based on : population in the House of : Representatives. In Russia, designs on Ottoman territory led to the Russo-Turkish War, lasting until 1792. The US Constitution is the oldest written constitution in the world still in use. It was adopted on September 17, 1787 and has been amended 27 times to deal with issues such as freedom of speech. George Washington (left) led the Constitutional Convention and became the first US president in 1789. During his presidency, the first ten amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, were ratified. x © esta? ae HX 08 ad’ se" oF gP a wD AE 2 Aer Ooo owed ND 9 10? ad? Pee on re ROM es Oro BW gk” ae per ge aS m \ MILLION PESOS THE AMOUNT OF MONEY SP RECEIVED ANNUALLY FROM ITS COLONIES AT THE TIME OF CHARLES III'S DEATH AFTER ALMOST 30 YEARS ON THE SPANISH THRONE, the “enlightened despot” Charles III died, and his son, Charles IV (1748-1819), inherited the crown. Unlike his father, Charles IV was not a strong leader. His wife, Maria Luisa of Parma (1751- 1819), and her political protégé Manuel de Godoy (1767-1851), who eventually became prime minister, ran the country and the empire, leading it into disaster. This period was marked by constant warfare with France, culminating in an occupation in 1808, when Charles was forced to abdicate [see 1808). In France, as in Britain, there was growing public support for the abolition of slavery. The Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade had been established in Britain in May 1787 with the aim of ending the slave trade. Shortly afterward, in February 1788, a group of Parisian men met to set 778 CONVICTS First Fleet Despite its reputation, only about half of those on the First Fleet were convicts. The remainder included marines, crew, and their families. © Arrival in Port Jackson Colonists arrive in the bay that would : later become Sydney, Australia. Native women are shown watching them on the shore. : up the Société des Amis des : Noirs (Society of the Friends of : the Blacks), which called not only : for the abolition of the slave trade and slavery, but also urged * equality for people of mixed race, » the treatment of whom was a growing issue in the French | Caribbean sugar colonies. Meanwhile, in Sweden, Gustav : Iwas trying to realize his : imperial ambitions by declaring : war against Russia without the : approval of parliament. He hoped to capture Finnish territory while : the Russians were occupied with © their war against Turkey. Gustav's efforts failed initially due » to aconspiracy by aristocrats and officers angry at the expansion of : the Crown's power at the expense of the Riksdag [parliament] and the nobility. Officers attempted to : negotiate with Catherine the Great of Russia without Gustav's prior : knowledge. Denmark later joined _ the Russo-Swedish War (to1790) as an ally of Russia, and laid siege : to the key port of Gothenburg, in the southwest of Sweden. In the neighboring Habsburg : Empire, the Magyar (Hungarian] : nobles were unhappy about Joseph II's reforms [see 1765], in : particular the introduction of German as the official language © of government and secondary : education. Joseph was also planning to restructure the land A portrait of Charles IV (center right) and his family by Spanish painter Francisco Goya (1746-1828). tax system, and had already abolished serfdom. By the time of his death in 1790, the Magyars were on the brink of a rebellion, and even appealed to Prussia to support them. However, their discontent did not escalate to armed conflict due to the intervention of Leopold II (1747- 92), who succeeded his brother and promised to rescind the previous reforms. He swore to treat Hungary as an independent kingdom and allow for it to be administered under its own laws. In Britain, Royal Navy Captain Arthur Phillip (1738-1814) had set sail on May 13, 1787 with 11 ships full of convicts destined for settlement at Botany Bay in Australia. Captain James Cook (see 1768) had first come across the bay in1770, and the British government was eager to settle the territory. At the same time, the shipping of convicts to Australia presented a way of relieving Britain's overcrowded prisons. Known as the First Fleet, these ships carried more : than 1,400 people, with convicts : making up 778 passengers. The : fleet arrived in Botany Bay in : 1788, but Phillip soon decided © the site was not suitable for : permanent settlement and the : colony moved farther inland to : Port Jackson, which would later : become known as Sydney. : Although the early days of : settlement were difficult, a » stream of ships continued to » bring felons, and less than 50 : years later there were nearly : 60,000 settlers in Australia. » a (Rs SD 66 oe 6 ae eo? oe of oh ge? oo Ae roe Pe Orie a oo ao y Nef cad 5 oye" a Ks) > VX, o Ssh OR. Qe oe A, ees ergs” NP? oe Oso seat? OS® re Ae Pe WY se* 8 Oo Go ee i od oe WF Rs < oe ole © ve a a 3 oi zi ” x A? xe nk NY aes wr, aN cS es yes ye? 3) wre se Oi ist as ot oo pane or” ard os Chae er oO? er 5 oF ee eal eo SRI 0% 6% 08 ss 208 pF ioe? OPP ee xe <0 gn? ote OS GOO aw yet <6 Qo ear os os — y ) oto 273 Beam engine The engine developed by Thomas Newcomen and improved by James Watt works by the beam at the top rocking back and forth, which transfers power froma piston that moves up and down ina cylinder. \ 5 \__ beam goes back and forth piston rod moves up steam condensed in cylinder James Watt's engine Scottish inventor James Watt makes improvements to the Newcomen engine by adding a condenser, and develops an engine that rotates a shaft instead of pumping. 1698 The high-pressure steam engine In England, Thomas Savery uses steam power to create “The Miner’s Friend” to pump water out of coal mines, although it was not a success. 1679 The first boiler French inventor Denis Papin designs a device that can convert liquid to vapor, Papin’s making it the first cao ‘ pressure cooker. digester ai 2 1st century CE { Hero's engine The Greek scientist Hero describes an aeolipile, which has a rotating ball that is spun by jets of steam. 1769-70 The steam car In France, Nicholas Cugot invents aroad vehicle that can run on steam by converting it into piston action and rotary motion. 1712 Newcomen’s engine Thomas Savery joins forces with Thomas Newcomen and they create the phe ete much-improved engine atmospheric steam pumping engine. Newcomen’s atmospheric engine connecting rod fi large flywheel — rotates crankshaft connects to piston Trevithick’s engine English mine engineer Richard Trevithick develops a smaller, lighter steam engine and puts it on wheels, creating a “road locomotive.” 1802-07 The steamboat In the US, Robert Fulton applies steam power to a passenger boat, and it proves a success in sailing against currents. THE STORY OF STEAM POWER Although the power of steam was not harnessed until the 17th century, scientists had understood its potential for hundreds of years. As far back as the 1st century cE, the Greek scientist Hero of Alexandria had discussed a device—the aeolipile—that illustrated the possibilities of water vapor. The aeolipile worked by heating water in a mounted sphere that had two bent nozzles. When steam was released through the nozzles, the sphere would rotate. Although it had no practical use at the time, this was the first indication of experiments with steam power. More dramatic developments took place in the 17th century, when the first boiler was invented. Although it was little more than a pressure cooker, from this point onward, a steady stream of innovations followed. POWERING INDUSTRY By the 18th century, engineers had realized how steam-powered devices could be used to pump water out of mines—an important issue in light of the growing demand for coal in Europe during the Industrial Revolution. Scientists soon realized that steam could also be used to power engines. Thomas Newcomen had invented a steam engine in 1712, but it was the improvements made by James Watt that made the device more efficient. Watt's key innovation consisted of condensing steam, so that the engine did not need to heat and cool the cylinder, making it far more efficient. Soon, steam power was being used to fuel ships and locomotives, enabling them to travel farther and faster. By the 19th century, it was being used to produce electricity, something that continues to the present day, using much of the technology developed over the preceding centuries. Richard Trevithick In addition to developing the world’s first steam railroad locomotive, the English engineer Richard Trevithick also adapted his high- pressure engine for use in iron mills and steam-powered barges. 44 IN THE WHOLE HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY IT WOULD BE DIFFICULT TO FIND A GREATER SINGLE ADVANCE THAN THIS. 99 L. T. C. Rolt, English writer and engineer, Thomas Newcomen: The Prehistory of Steam, 1963 Savannah steamship 1819 Crossing the Atlantic The US vessel Savannah becomes the first ship to cross the Atlantic using steam power as well as sails. The era of sails ends soon after. 1829 Stephenson's “Rocket” English engineer George Stephenson applies steam power to locomotives, and his “Rocket” becomes a commercial success. Stephenson's “Rocket 1867 The water-tube boiler In the US, George Babcock and Stephen Wilcox invent the water-tube boiler, in which water circulates in tubes. It is used to make electricity in 1882. Babcock and Wilcox steam boiler 1884-97 The steam turbine Sir Charles Algernon Parsons develops a steam turbine generator, which produces huge amounts of electricity. Itis used to power large ships, such as the Titanic. The Titanic powered by Parson's steam turbine Early 20th century Geothermal power Scientists in Lardarello, Italy, discover “geothermal,” or “dry steam,” energy and build the first power station of its kind in 1911. — pam, ar Geothermal power station 20th century Steam turbines and nuclear power Controlled nuclear chain reactions create heat in reactors, which boils water to produce steam and drive a steam turbine in order to produce electricity. 46 LIBERTE, EGALITE, _ FRATERNITE! 99 “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity!” Rallying cry of the French Revolution, 1789 Representatives of France's “Third Estate” —the people—swore the “Tennis Court Oath” not to separate until they had established a constitution in France. BY 1789, FRANCE’S LOUIS XVI was facing multiple crises: he was bankrupt from endless warfare, there was popular unrest, and the failure of the 1788 grain crop meant riots over bread. The decision was made to summon the Estates-General, France's representative assembly. It had not met since 1614, so between January and April elections were held to select deputies. The Estates-General was composed of three “estates” or orders: the The three estates These figures (from left to right) symbolize each of the estates representing France: the nobility, the people, and the clergy. First Estate (the clergy]; the Second Estate (the nobility]; and the Third Estate—the people. The assembly met at Versailles on May 5. The immediate issue was how much voting power to give the Third Estate; the First and Second Estates wanted voting to be by estate rather than a vote per head, so that they would not be outnumbered by the public's representatives. By June 17 the Ors. e eid Ra) of as eS oF se ics eo POE 3S eg Rita ois Pee oe B® VF Pr eo ie” sO I? o_o Sys gor", of POM Pedra Re aN s oh ow Mt OT we" a ya" oF le No xi ao a eo > ox xg a soo e oO oP ne ye os A WE Ne oO a 0 av ae Pd © 278 : of Suspects was passed, which : established Revolutionary : Tribunals. Anyone suspected of : being an enemy of the Revolution » was tried and if deemed guilty received a death sentence. The activities of hundreds of thousands of people were : Monitored, and many were arrested. The Committee of : Public Safety, led by Maximilien © EliWhitney’s cotton gin : This machine separated cotton seeds from the plant's fiber more quickly than if done by hand, which : increased cotton production greatly. —_— I DIE INNOCENT! 99 Louis XVI of France, before his execution Robespierre (1758-94), was, in effect, in control of the government. Members of the same political club as Robespierre—the Jacobins— also become involved in the surveillance of potential suspects. In Saint-Domingue (Haiti), fighting on the island was complicated by the arrival of British troops. Prompted by the French declaration of war in 1792, Britain hoped to seize control of the island and add it to their other : + over the Nootka Sound in the : Pacific, northwest of the American : territory, by signing the Second » Nootka Sound Convention. | Another agreement was signed : the following year in which Spain Caribbean sugar islands, such as Jamaica. The struggle lasted for five years. In the US, Eli Whitney (1765- 1825) perfected a machine called the cotton gin, which he patented the following year. Many planters wanted to diversify into the cotton trade, but the long-staple variety of cotton grown—which yields long, silky fibers—could only be cultivated near the coast. Heavily seeded short-staple cotton— producing shorter fibers—was the | : in that territory. only other option, but removing the seeds was a laborious and time-consuming task. Whitney's machine, however, combed cotton very quickly, and it led to the development of the cotton industry in the American South. Back in Europe, Poland faced a second partition, this time with Prussia and Russia taking some 115,000 square miles (300,000 sq km], leaving Poland a fraction of its former size. Poland ceded eastern provinces fram Livonia to Moldavia to Russia, while Prussia was given Great Poland, Torun, and the port city of Gdansk. THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE _ EXECUTED _ DURING “THE _ TERROR” Britain and Spain averted a war capitulated to British demands. : The diplomatic standoff—which : eventually involved the European : allies of both sides—had started : in 1789 when Spain seized three © British ships sailing nearby. This escalated into a battle of words over who had the right to settle In China, East India Company » officer George Macartney [1737- » 1806) had arrived in Beijing » (Peking) in 1792 with a party of © 94 people and a range of British © goods. He was finally presented to the emperor Quinlong (1735-99) in September 1793. The British : government and the East India : Company were eager to expand trade between Britain and China, © but Qing officials were not © interested and they refused to : negotiate a treaty. ~~ z THE REIGN OF TERROR in France eliminated the enemies of the Committee of Public Safety on the left and right by 1794. However, the committee felt the need to go further and suspended a suspect's right to public trial and legal assistance, with juries instructed to issue either acquittal or death. This measure was passed in June, but little more than a month later a revolt in the National Convention ended the reign of Robespierre. Known as the Thermidorian Reaction, it refers to 9 Thermidor Year II (July 27, 1794), the date in the French Revolutionary Calendar. This change to the calendar system began in 1792 and lasted until 1806. The calendar began on the year of the anniversary of the Maximilien Robespierre Safety tried to eliminate his enemies, but he ended up dying on the guillotine. This detail from a fresco depicts the battle of Raclawice on April 4, 1794, when Polish troops led by General Tadeusz Kosciuszko defeated the Russians. The head of the Committee of Public Revolutionary coin The French king Louis XVI was replaced on the country’s coinage by the figure of Hercules, flanked by Liberty and Equality. proclamation of the Republic (September 21, also the autumn long, and was divided into “decades” of 10 days. On July 27, Robespierre was arrested and he and another 100 supporters faced the same guillotine used on their enemies. This was a turning point in the Convention asserted its strength, but the Terror had exacted a high price—some 17,000 people were officially executed and hundreds of thousands arrested. In Saint-Domingue, the former i slave turned military leader, : General Toussaint Louverture, : was persuaded to leave the © Spanish and join French : Commissioner Léger-Feélicité » Sonthonax (1763-1813] to lead : French Republican troops—though | he later broke with the French © (see 1803). Sonthonax was posted © to Saint-Domingue in 1792 to keep : the island under control after the : slave rebellion, and to enforce the i National Convention's ruling that | free people of color were to have £ equality. However, France's © declaration of war against Britain : had complicated the situation, and » Spain and Britain fought alongside » the former slaves. This prompted : Sonthonax to look to existing | slaves as possible troops. In 1793 equinox). Each month was 30 days : » the island freedom if they fought : for the French cause, and by that : August he decreed the abolition : of slavery, ratified by the National Convention on February 4, 1794. he promised slaves in the north of Meanwhile, in Poland, anger : had mounted over the devastating French Revolution, as the National : » patriots organized the Polish : Rebellion of 1794. Despite an £ initial victory in Russian-held i Warsaw, the Poles were crushed : by Russia's forces. partition the previous year, and 44 [WAS BORN A SLAVE, BUT NATURE GAVE ME A SOUL OF A FREE MAN... 99 Toussaint Louverture, former slave and military leader THE SECOND PARTITION OF POLAND had sparked an uprising in 1794 led by Polish officer Tadeusz Kosciuszko (1746-1817). After eight months of fighting, a Prussian-Russian alliance defeated the Poles, and the Third Partition of 1795 occurred. This divided among Russia, Prussia, and Austria. After this final partition, Poland ceased to exist. Elsewhere in Europe, the War of the First Coalition was drawing to aclose, negotiated partially with three treaties under the Peace of Basel. These agreements gave German lands west of the Rhine River to France, and ended Franco-Spanish fighting around the Pyrenees mountains through Spain's cessation of Santo Domingo to France. This meant the French now had control of Maroon colony, Jamaica This engraving shows a maroon settlement in Jamaica. Maroons were former runaway slaves who had established their own autonomy. Aview of the island of Penang, north of the Dutch settlement of Malacca. The Strait of Malacca remains a key trade route linking Europe and Africa to China. _THE NUMBER _OF NEWSPAPERS SOLD EACH saw the remaining Polish territory DAY IN _ REVOLUTIONARY | FRANCE _ AROUND 1795 : the whole island of Hispaniola, although the fighting that had begun in Saint-Domingue showed » few signs of abating. In Jamaica, the peace that had : been established in 1739 between : the British and former runaway _ slaves, known as maroons [from : the Spanish word for runaways, » cimarrén) ended. Maroons had initially invaded and raided colonists but, on signing a treaty _ that granted them land and * autonomy, had largely desisted. : However, in 1795, an incident in : which the British severely whipped © two maroons for stealing pigs triggered a revolt. Fearful that the | island could follow the example of © Saint-Domingue, the governor brought in troops to suppress it. Upon surrender, some maroons : were shipped to Nova Scotia. Farther afield, the Dutch- controlled Cape of Good Hope in : South Africa and the port of : Malacca in the Strait of Malacca, © which connects the Indian and Pacific Oceans, were seized : by the British. OVER A YEAR AFTER SETTING OUT to find the Niger River, Mungo Park (1771-1806), a Scottish surgeon and explorer, finally located it. He had been sent on the expedition by the Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa, in order to “ascertain the course” of this large African river. He embarked from the River Gambia in 1795, and on July 20, after prolonged illness and four months spent captive, he reached Ségou {in present-day Mali), which lies on the river. The first documented inoculation was completed by British physician Edward Jenner (1749-1823) on May 14. In an attempt to prevent the deadly smallpox virus, which had killed thousands across Europe, Jenner experimented by using cowpox, a similar but less lethal virus often contracted by milking infected animals. His experiment entailed inoculating eight-year-old James Phipps with cowpox taken from Sarah Nelmes, a dairymaid. The early success of this experiment led to the development of the modern vaccine. In Europe, French army commander Napoleon Bonaparte (see panel, right) took charge of the French army in northern Italy in March. He was given orders to seize Lombardy, and went on to win many victories over the Austrian army, subsequently forcing Austria into peace negotiations. The result was the Treaty of Campo Formio, signed the following year, in which One of a series of portraits depicting the Persian Shah's family and harem. It was commissioned by Fat’h Ali Shah, the second Qajar ruler. Austria recognized the French puppet state, the Cisalpine Republic, and ceded the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) to France. In Persia, a new dynasty—the Qajar—was established. The leader, Agha Mohammad Khan (1742-97), had spent the past decade attempting to unite disparate factions in the region, eventually asserting his authority over territory as far as Georgia in the Caucasus mountains. He declared himself shah (king) in 1796, but died the next year. His family continued to rule until 1925. Farther east, China was in the throes ofa rebellion. The White Lotus, a secret Buddhist sect, sought to overthrow their Manchu rulers and restore the previous ruling dynasty, the Ming. The White Lotus attracted much support, but ultimately failed after eight years of fighting. A painting of Marquis Wellesley viewing an elephant fight. A PERIOD OF AGGRESSIVE EXPANSION of Britain's territorial claims in Bengal began when Irish nobleman Richard Wellesley (1760-1842) was appointed Governor-General of Bengal in 1797. He left for Calcutta in November and set about increasing British territory through both military and diplomatic channels. During his term as governor (1797-1805), some of the most powerful rulers in India were defeated—including Tipu Sultan, who was known as the Tiger of Mysore [see 1761 and 1799). This period also saw efforts to professionalize the East India Company. These included setting up a college in order to teach junior clerks subjects such as Indian languages, though some of these measures were considered controversial at the time. NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1769-1821) Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Corsica and educated in France, where he became an army officer in 1785. His successful campaign in Italy (1796-97) was followed by further military and political victories. In 1804, he was declared emperor and led France on to more battles, though with diminishing success, draining the nation’s resources and ultimately leading to his downfall. He died in exile on the remote island of St. Helena, in the South Atlantic. 0 RY PS aoe af Roe a oh ge? ® yo aX® oo? oF ae gel Ca ae rr or Ae pA Se PF oh oF NF ah ow’ «< 3 VF oo or” 0 Ron Foot 08 oct Seen WE awl we eo & Ke we 3 nh ok ok eae ¥ Broo? oo, eh Bo. se 9? 40 FOOD or Aes SOE SS og Po ws RAO “Ae ee" y %

2 S 9¢ » AR go 9s ee se™ 9 o Rv RY Ds of oP? Can Or 3 gH oO WP ot wt af ica oo PONT ok o> a6 oe PE OW go AO ny PF a Oe > grt? ocd Ge re ee Oy owt! xo Sy oF Eat ® ay? oS WAM OP ge’ oe 300° OLS x of ww ae ‘ AS y SA aS S Ro ws ) a eS * we ee eh 4S ao ‘ Fe) 0) a Me os x. ie no Se or ROMs.) Bae eho™ woe Wee were? —_ so _SOH nh gh oN HE Peer CRA Onward route of Lewis and Clark and only—former slave colony to The two explorers finally returned | Sweden as members. Deciding throw off colonial rule and slavery. : to St. Louis in 1806. against an invasion of Britain, 0 1000 2000 Territory gained by the US The massive Louisiana territory almost doubled the size of the US. The following year it was extended south to include New Orleans. settling further west came to depend on trade along the Mississippi River. On May 2 a deal, the Louisiana Purchase, was signed in which the United States bought the territory stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Rocky Mountains—an area of 829,000 square miles (2,147,000 square kilometres). The price agreed was $15,000,000, but, including interest, the total paid was closer to $27,000,000. Napoleon faced further challenges in Europe as Britain declared war on France, beginning the Napoleonic Wars. Meanwhile, British East India Company troops were waging another war involving the internal politics of the Maratha Confederacy, the Second Maratha War (to 1805). The Company's attempt to gain control of the territory in India only laid the ground for further conflict. Despite this, its birth was met with a wary reception—some in the slave-owning US did not want Haiti setting an example to the southern states, a concern shared by Britain, whose slave colony of Jamaica was also in close proximity. The defeat in the Caribbean did little to weaken Napoleon's stranglehold on power in Europe. In 1804, he made France a hereditary empire, ostensibly to ward off any assassination attempts, but also to showcase his own might. The coronation ceremony on December 2 was remarkable as Napoleon was not crowned by Pope Pius VII (1742-1823) who officated, but placed the crown on his own head, crowning himself Napoleon I. In this year he also made sweeping reforms to the legal system in France and French territories, known as the Napoleonic Code (see panel, right). In the US, two explorers— Meriwether Lewis (1774-1809) In West Africa, Usman dan Fodio (1754-1817), a Muslim scholar and teacher, began a four-year jihad (holy war] that resulted in the creation of the Sokoto Caliphate in 1808 and the Fulani empire in Hausaland (in present-day northern Nigeria). CODE CIVIL one PRANCAIS One of Napoleon Bonaparte’s most far-reaching reforms was to codify French law. Enacted in 1804, the Napoleonic Code (Code Napoléon) was a civil code created with the intention of breaking from the institutions of the past. Based on reason, it was also heavily Bonaparte sent forces to Ulm, Bavaria (September 25-October 20), where he was victorious. However, the day after the Battle of Ulm ended, France suffered a humiliating naval defeat at the hands of the British in the Battle of Trafalgar, under the command influenced by Roman law, and declared all men equal, ending any hereditary nobility. Women fared less well, as they were put under male control. The laws also dealt with issues such as property rights, marriage, and civil rights. The Napoleonic Code was disseminated throughout French-controlled territory in Europe and beyond, making it highly influential - an adapted version is still in force in the Dominican Republic today. It was also later adopted by some of the new Latin American republics, including Bolivia and Chile. CASUALTIES i Casualties of Trafalgar | This sea battle saw heavy losses for : France and Spain, though British Admiral Horatio Nelson was among : the dead. i of Napoleon's ald enemy, Horatio © Nelson (see 1798). The battle, : fought near Cape Trafalgar, | between Cadiz, Spain, and the : Strait of Gibraltar, saw the : meeting of 18 French and 15 © Spanish ships against 27 British | vessels. Britain was victorious, : capturing or destroying 18 ships, : but Nelson, fatally wounded in : action, died before the end of the : battle. Napoleon decided to change tactics and turned to : Europe, occupying Vienna and : defeating Russia and Austria : at the Battle of Austerliz on | December 2. In Egypt, the Macedonian-born » soldier Muhammad Ali (1769- : 1849) was named viceroy, or : pasha, to the Ottoman sultan. : Ali had arrived in Egypt in 1801 : as part of aregiment sent to ? drive out the French. Napoleon after his victory at the Battle of Jena in Saxony. PRUSSIA SUFFERED A DEVASTATING defeat against France at the Battle of Jena on October 14. Fought in Jena and Auserstadt in Saxony (southeast Germany), 122,000 French troops and 114,000 Prussians met in combat. As a result, Frederick William Ill (1770-1840) decided that internal reform in Prussia was necessary in order to bolster the country’s flagging fortunes. Among the numerous measures taken, serfdom was abolished. Although the transition later proved profitable for agriculture, it took years to implement the changes. In addition to his other conquests, Napoleon wanted control of the Holy Roman Empire, which would expand his territory in Germany. Emperor Francis Il (1768-1835) was in no position to challenge France and abdicated, officially ending the empire, of which France took possession. In the Middle East, the Islamic holy pilgrimage site of Mecca was invaded by members of the Arabian Saudi dynasty who practiced a strict version of the religion known as Wahhabi. In 1805, they had captured Medina, which, like Mecca, was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. They also made incursions into the Arabian Peninsula, sacking the city of Karbala, in Iraq (also under Ottoman rule), and extending their influence south to Yemen, a cause for concern among Ottoman officials. 44 YOU MAY CHOOSE TO LOOK THE OTHER WAY BUT YOU CAN NEVER SAY AGAIN THAT YOU DID NOT KNOW. 99 William Wilberforce, to the English parliament prior to the vote on the Abolition Bill, 1789 Francisco Goya's painting The Third of May depicts the French troops executing Spanish insurgents involved in the Madrid uprising. THE LONG BATTLE LED BY English abolitionist and politician William Wilberforce (1759-1833)—and the thousands of members of the British public who supported his campaign—finally came to fruition | : while Prussia signed the other : on July 9. Under the terms of : the treaties, France and Russia : formed an alliance, while the : territories of Austria and Prussia were significantly reduced. in 1807 as the bill to abolish the slave trade was passed with an overwhelming majority. The legislation, however, only ended the trade in Britain. It did not end the practice of slavery. Russia, alongside Prussia, had reentered the hostilities against France with the Battle of Eylau (February 7-8) in eastern Prussia. The battle was inconclusive and resulted in a stalemate, with both sides losing more than 20,000 troops. After a decisive Russian defeat at the later Battle of Elite force A Janissary, left, in Cairo. Initially | the bodyguards of the sultan, the _ Jannissaries became the elite © troops of the Ottoman Empire army. the Treaties of Tilsit on July 7, In the Ottoman Empire, » auxiliary troops called Yamaks » erupted into a revolt over | attempts to introduce European- i style reforms to the military. | They were soon joined by the » elite Janissary soldiers. The © unrest culminated in the : assassination of Selim III ALREADY IN CONTROL OF MOST of western and central Europe, Napoleon now turned toward the Iberian Peninsula. Enraged by the Portuguese refusal to back a French boycott against Britain, he sent troops into Portugal via northern Spain. The presence of French troops, as well as previous unpopular concessions to France, provoked the Spanish people to rise up, calling for the abdication of their monarch, Charles lV, in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII (1784-1833). Ferdinand took the throne, but it was to be very short-lived. Lured to Bayonne, France, by Napoleon's offer to mediate, Ferdinand VII was forced to abdicate. As Charles VII had already abdicated, Napoleon was now able to declare his brother, Joseph Bonaparte (1768-1844), the new king of Spain, triggering the Peninsular War. When news of these events reached Spain's colonies, there were furious outbursts. In Santo Domingo, loyalists mounted the War of Reconquest (to 1809), driving out the occupying French troops and declaring the island once more under Spanish control. LONG-STANDING ENEMIES, Spain and Britain now fought alongside each other as they united against France. British troops met early defeat at the Battle of La Corufa, northwest Spain, fighting French troops under Napoleon's direct command. Britain was subsequently victorious at the Battle of Talavera (July 27-28), southwest of Madrid, under the leadership of Arthur Wellesley (1769-1852), later known as the Duke of Wellington. The Spaniards, while fighting the French, had also been establishing provincial bodies, called juntas, in order to organize their resistance. The central junta in Spain had also issued a decree declaring the American territories to be more than just colonies, but still a part of the monarchy. Across the Atlantic it was obvious that there was a crisis of legitimacy in Spanish rule—without a king, to whom did allegiance lie? While debates about this were underway, similar American juntas were set up, and it soon it became clear that not all the colonies would stay on the path of loyalty to the Crown. Pistol from Peninsular War Flintlock pistols were widely used in this period. The term “guerrilla” also arose, named for Spanish tactics. Friedland, Russia signed one of ~~: (1761-1808). 29 ye e id OF ews e By & iss a eye ae < oy en’ < Lo 9 a sys ot”, Re Sr z oe aS ve ONY < ox! ot eo GP ce" oe oa x oo AO wh eo Sr S .) Os gO (07 0 Qe ag. cS Ay we 8 T° ci oe SS ae weer oe ae eo & oS Rog aS me" Mo I oh ne! SF ee ss ss wo x x CF yo? 0? pot or get ew gt ot pre? 9 oF 30? &e oF de® x 8 gee 59 oS oo OV oF Na % o . 3h ye oar) a) & 32 NG < S or gore ats hes StF no Pi alg at aw of oe Ko O° aw oe eS ae OY ey oo - eo Re a ys an Aer = 2 < 67 OU Xs OF PS Pie at oc Gs 8 UPS aul” ww rs Oo? oh SE PP FP Ke we 3h aor Sos eo ele pes’ oS e Rost eK CN ed) S % on WE cd o8 08 9 oho peer Pore peor ee gad wh yore cs eC V9 ce OL eo a cS Se ye ae < = ws Fo gh eR nee ar eee ee oe OF SP om a 0% & OSE? ie x of Xa o S o 7 o 2 eo e Oot on AS ORs aek Od Xo i rerio cs oP oe Coscia os, ee e oF oO ae cohol 0 ewe oP x9" so ow x ge oo oo Ss ie oor Ro of “° Re o op oe Ss S = Privo’ x Roe Ba or o® ‘eo Cee Sth Ks a QW’ 108 We? we se 07 oF ABP OF og” e7 Cee wer kN Pro of ESCO, & gh 0" ye Wes es & oe 8! po BF ge? ‘Sy WH ge! oO S x ger gf Also during this period, French troops arrived in Algiers, with the intention of taking control. A few years earlier, in 1827, the provincial Ottoman ruler, or dey, Husayn (r. 1818-38], had struck a French consul with a fly whisk, giving the French a pretext for war. The source of the tension was an unpaid debt between France and the dey. During a French Liberty leading the people This famous painting by French artist Eugéne Delacroix (1798-1863) was inspired by the July Revolution, and depicts “Liberty” as a woman. blockade of Algiers, matters escalated. By July 5, the French had raised their flag over the kasbah in Algiers and this marked the start of French control over this North African territory. In South America, political alliances were also fragile. Before his death in 1830, Simén Bolivar (see 1811) had witnessed the secession of Venezuela and Ecuador from Gran Colombia, which ended his dream of political unity among the new republics. Farther north, more settlers in the US were making their way : west, and this was known as the era of the wagon train. Settlers, traveling in groups of horse-drawn wagons carrying all of their possessions, headed out to unknown territory to set up farms and settle the land. Meanwhile, to facilitate settlement in the east, the US government passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830. This stripped American Indians of legal rights, and forced them to leave their desirable territory in the southeast of the country and relocate to sparsely populated land west of the Mississippi. The moves resulted in many deaths. we aoe a oo” xF 0) 29 Rien oes es so we. west wot Brae? wt 25? we 2 THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS: was caught up in the turmoil across Europe. The Congress of Vienna (see 1815) had forced the Belgian territories, which had been under French control, to unite with the Dutch, thereby creating a buffer between Russia and France. This move proved unpopular and tensions grew over the intervening years. By August 1830, inspired by events in France, the Belgian Revolution had begun. The result was a clear break from the kingdom of the Netherlands. Later that year a constitution was issued, which created a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. On January 20, 1831, the new state of Belgium was officially recognized by Britain and France, though not the Netherlands. The Belgians were forced to choose a monarch with no direct connection to other major European powers. They finally elected Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld—the uncle of Britain's Queen Victoria—and he ruled as Leopold I until 1865. The same year, Syria was annexed by Egypt until 1840, when the latter was finally forced to return the region to the Ottomans. 464 NO MINISTER EVER STOOD, OR COULD STAND, AGAINST PUBLIC OPINION. 99 Robert Peel, British politician, on the Reform Act, 1834 The English Reform Act A cartoon shows the reformers attack on the "Old Rotten Tree," which symbolizes the corrupt “rotten” boroughs. They wanted a fairer distribution of parliamentary seats. BRITAIN ALSO SAW UPHEAVAL AND SOCIAL CHANGE in the 1830s. There had been growing public discontent over the outdated voting system (see 1819] A bill was drafted, aimed at transferring votes and redistributing seats from small “rotten” boroughs controlled by the nobility to the more populous industrial towns. The first Reform Bill failed to be passed in parliament. This caused serious riots in many cities, as wellas a political crisis with the prime minister, Charles Grey (1764-1845), who threatened to step down over the matter. The bill finally became law on June 4, 1832. This legislation allowed more middle-class men the vote, but the working class and women were still excluded. . 295 Wd wy _ : ih Ng cotton spinning machines meant they were best operated by children. , THE MAXIMUM / HOURS PER WEEK , CHILDREN AGED ) 9-12 COULD WORK ” IN ENGLISH MILLS IN BRITAIN, INDUSTRIAL development and urban growth progressed rapidly. Laws were introduced to address exploitation of labour and the growing cost of providing for the poor. The 1833 Factory Act appointed inspectors to monitor factories and limited the hours that children could work. In England, local parishes provided some relief for the elderly, ill, and impoverished. Out of this grew a system of workhouses, aiming to give employment to the able-bodied. The Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 stipulated that the poor could only receive assistance if they went to workhouses, which were to be built in every parish. Conditions in the workhouses were deliberately harsh and the legislation immediately proved unpopular. In China, British merchants were granted permission to engage in trade after legislation ended the East India Company's monopoly. Although there had been private traders in Canton before the act, now more were allowed to sell their wares and export Chinese goods, such » as tea, the imports of which § rose 40 per cent after the beginning of free trade. In 1832, Egypt invaded Syria. Muhammad Ali, the pasha, was angered by a failed promise from the Ottoman sultan to give him the territory. Ali took Gaza and Jerusalem in the First Turko-Egyptian War, and by 1833 the Ottoman government ' begged Russia for help, and 18,000 troops were sent to Constantinople. Britain and France got involved, demanding : asettlement, in which Egypt was given Syria, and Russia withdrew. Commemorative coin The Slave Emancipation Act outlawed the buying or selling of people, set free young children, and compensated planters in most of the British Empire. This engraving shows children working in an English mill. The size of the first A Galapagos cactus finch, one of the species noted by Charles Darwin. IN THE PACIFIC OCEAN, almost 600 miles (1,000km) from the coastline of South America, English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-82) took extensive notes on the nature of the Galapagos Islands. Darwin had accepted a post ona scientific voyage aboard the Beagle, which left England on December 27, 1831, arriving in the Galapagos in September 1835 (see also 1839]. It was in the Galapagos where Darwin first noticed the difference in the species of wildlife on the island compared with mainland South America. This discovery laid the foundation for his later scientific work on the evolution of different species (see 1859]. In Britain, the National Colonisation Society had been set up to facilitate the settlement in Australia of people who were not convicts. Founder Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1796-1862)—who had served time in prison—came up with a scheme for populating colonies based on the sale of land anda tax on the price, which would pay for the transportation to the colony. A fleet set off for South Australia, where the city of Melbourne was established in 1835, and Adelaide a year later. 46 IT SEEMS TO BE A LITTLE WORLD WITHIN ITSELF. 99 Charles Darwin, from Journal of Researches, September 1835 The Alamo, the site of a key battle for Texan independence. AS SETTLERS IN THE US MOVED WEST, many decided to live in the Texas territory, which was part of Mexico. However, Mexican authorities wanted tighter control over this large territory and the settlers rebelled in October 1835, launching the Texas War of Independence. The following March, after months of unrest, General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna (1794-1876) marched into Texas with 5,000 Mexican troops Although massively outnumbered, the rebels managed to hold them off during a battle at a San Antonio fortress, called the Alamo. The rebels were eventually defeated but the Alamo proved a rallying point for Texans bent on revenge. Soon after, General Samuel Houston (1793-1863) led a Texan army with the battle cry "Remember the Alamo!” and beat Santa Anna at the Battle of Jacinto on April 21, forcing Mexico to recognize the new republic of Texas. | Texans Battle of the Alamo Texans were vastly outnumbered by Mexican forces in the battle fought between 23 February and 6 March and there were very few survivors. A painting of Queen Victoria’s coronation in Westminster Abbey. Long-distance communicator This is a single-needle electric telegraph machine, which later developed into double-needle and four-needle instruments. EXPERIMENTS had been taking place for decades over the question of how to transmit electric current through wires. In 1837, two British inventors, William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone, made a breakthrough and secured a patent for an electric telegraph device that allowed for communication through wires and had needles that could point to specific letters and numbers. At the same time in the US, Samuel Morse received a patent onan electromagnetic transmitter that could transfer information using dots and dashes. Morse’s telegraph was far simpler than the Cooke Wheatstone design, and soon became the standard instrument worldwide, revolutionizing the global movement of information. When Britain's King William IV died on 20 June, he had no surviving legitimate heir, so the crown passed to Victoria, his niece (see panel, below). She was the daughter of Edward, Duke of Kent, and granddaughter of George III. Her reign was viewed as a time of growing prosperity, technological innovation, and colonial expansion. In Japan, Tokugawa leyoshi (1793-1853) became shogun. At the time of his rule Japan was experiencing social and economic decline. He introduced measures known as the Tempo Reforms, restricting migration to urban areas and instigating price controls—but they failed. QUEEN VICTORIA (1819-1901) Ruling for 63 years and 216 days, Queen Victoria remains the longest-reigning monarch of Britain. In 1840, she married her cousin, Albert of Saxe- Coburg and Gotha (1819-61). She adored him and they had nine children together. The Victorian era contrasted sharply with the excesses of previous Hanoverian rulers, and Victoria’s domestic life was held up as the model for families in this period. 44 HE’LL HAVE US GOING TO THE MOON YET. 99 Great Western Railway director, on Isambard Kingdom Brunel TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGY was rapidly changing. Along with the expansion in rail transport, travel by sea was also being revolutionized by many innovations. The power of steam was finally harnessed in an efficient way that allowed for much quicker sea crossings [see 1786). On 8 April 1838, the Great Western left Bristol for its maiden transatlantic voyage, and Brunel's Great Western The Great Western steamship shown off the west coast of England. The sails helped to propel the ship and keep it on an even keel. arrived in New York 15 days later; the paddle-wheeled steamship had cut the voyage time in half and arrived with fuel to spare. The ship had been designed by leading British civil engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806-59), who had also been involved in other engineering projects, including the Great Western Railway. The idea for the steamship started as a suggestion by Brunel to Great Western Railway directors that the train line could be extended to New York by way of a regular transatlantic service. Soon after, the Great Western Steamship Company was set up to facilitate the construction of the ship. In the Americas, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua became independent nations. WHILE BRITISH TRADE IN CHINA CONTINUED TO EXPAND, so too did the Chinese opium problem. Decades earlier, the East India Company had started exporting the drug, produced from poppies grown in Bengal, to China in order to trade it for tea, which it then sent to Britain. Despite numerous attempts to ban the importation of | the substance, British ships continued to import it. On March 30, 1839, one frustrated Chinese commissioner ordered British warehouses and ships in Canton to be destroyed. Britain sent warships in retaliation, attacking China's coastline in the First Opium War. Meanwhile, tensions between Egypt and the Ottoman sultan erupted again in the Second Turko-Egyptian War. This time it was triggered by an Ottoman attempt to invade Syria, which it had previously ceded to Egypt (see 1833). At the same time, British political meddling in Afghanistan Ee triggered the First Afghan War (to 1842). Worried about Russia’s Galapagos Islands The East India Company's steamer, Nemesis, attacks Chinese war junks in Anson's Bay, at the mouth of the Peart River, China, during the First Opium War. growing influence over the Afghan _ emir, Dost Muhammad Khan (1793-1863], Britain attempted to replace him with an emir more sympathetic to British interests in northern India, including the protection of overland trade routes : through the region. © In England, naturalist Charles Darwin [see 1835] published an : account of the diary he kept while on the Beagle. The journey had taken Darwin around the world. He had set off from Plymouth in : 1831 for the Cape Verde Islands, © then Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Tierra del Fuego. He then sailed north along the Pacific » Coast of South America, stopping at the Galapagos Islands, before going onward to Tahiti, New Zealand, Australia, Mauritius, and © finally back to England, arriving in October 1836. Darwin's account : helped make his name in science. a prna0" Zz i= SOUTH calzo | AMERICA ‘seLima : Planalto de eit Mato Grosso PACIFIC " OCEAN bE Rio de Janeiro DARWIN'S JOURNEY hy Corian ® Feb 1832 pent» Sep 1835 mat Valparaiso oe Buenos Aires Darwin's Beagle Goncepeléh Alcritauides: voyages Charles Darwin's five-year ee AT DANTE Isla de Chiloé OCEAN voyage (1831-36) on end the Beagle, a warship Archipelago. carrying ten cannons, led Strait of Magellan ralisland Islands him to consider scientific a South eagle Channel Georgia evidence in new ways. 1750-1913 | THE AGE OF REVOLUTION THe ORO When Thales, a mathematician and philosopher in ancient Greece, experimented with a piece of amber—known as “elektron” in Greek—Little could he have known that his initial observations would still hold a significant iy place in science more than 2,000 years later. What Thales noticed was that if he rubbed a piece of amber against fur it would attract bits of dust and feathers lying nearby—although he did not know it, he had stumbled on what we know today as static electricity. Over the following centuries, scientists all over the world experimented with metal brushes move charges metal foil sectors produce a charge static electricity is stored in Leyden jars 600BCE Amber Thales of Miletus rubs a piece of amber against fur and notes that it attracts bits of nearby feathers. 1600 Gilbert's De Magnete English physician William Gilbert publishes his famous work on magnetism. Leyden Jar 1700-10 Electrostatic generator English inventor Francis Hauksbee develops a device that can generate static electricity by using a glass globe and wool threads. pile Pieter van Musschenbroe and Ewald Georg von Kleist independently invent a device that allows static electricity to be stored. this form of electricity, as well as magnets and magnetism. By the 17th and 18th centuries, technological leaps had been made, although the connection between electricity and magnets would not be clear until the 19th century (see panel, right). POWER TO THE PEOPLE As the 1800s progressed, understanding about electricity rapidly increased, and new innovations were rolled out in quick succession. By the dawn of the 20th century, many of the technologies were in place that are still with us today—such as batteries and light bulbs—though they have since been further adapted and refined. Today, the scientific challenge is to find ways of generating electricity that do not cause pollution. Wimshurst machine The English inventor James Wimshurst developed a device that could generate static electricity and store it in a vessel called a Leyden jar. For many years, scientists studying electricity used Wimshurst machines to produce electric charge. in Voltaic 1765-46 The Leyden jar 1752 Lightning conductor US scientist Benjamin Franklin flies a kite during a storm, with a key tied to the string, and proves that lightning is a form of electricity. 1799-1800 The first voltaic pile The Italian inventor Alessandro Volta creates the first battery, known as the voltaic pile—the unit “volt” is later named after him. Edison’s screw-in light bulb Although US inventor Thomas Edison is often credited with inventing the light bulb, what he really did was improve an existing idea (see below]. He spent years working out a way—using incandescent bulbs—to make electric lighting practical and safe for public use. 1820s-30s Faraday experiments English scientist Michael Faraday further illustrates the relationship between electricity and magnetism with his induction ring. Faraday’s induction ring 1820 Electromagnetism discovered Danish physicist Hans Christian Orsted notices that a magnet is affected by a nearby wire connected to a battery, and discovers the relationship between magnets and electricity. THE STORY OF ELECTRICITY 46 GENIUS [S ONLY ONE PERCENT cumee cymimm» INSPIRATION, AND NINETY-NINE “armen” DE RCENT PERSPIRATION. 99 without catching fire Thomas Edison, US inventor, c. 1903 wires carry electricity to ™ and from metal end filament screws into — lamp ’ contact transmits electricity This English inventor played an important role in carbonized bamboo furthering knowledge about the relationship between filament moves magnets and electricity. His discovery of what he electrons “ : ae 5 4 called “electromagnetic rotation” was a vital step in the development of what would become the electric motor. Faraday worked out that the interaction between filament becomes di it ee Rae Pete electricity and a magnet would lead to the constant passes through it rotation of current, something he tested using a wire carrying electricity, a magnet, and a bowl of mercury. 1878-79 1882 Early 21st century The electric light bulb Hydroelectric power Sustainable electricity British inventor Joseph Swan creates an incandescent “electric Scientists begin to realize that the force of water can Growing worries about pollution caused by the older ways lamp.” The idea is generate electricity, pleam turbine 1884 of generating improved by US and build dams and Electricity from steam energy lead to the scientist Thomas Edison, hydroelectric power Like liquid water, steam is also development of and the light bulb plants to harness harnessed for electricity by devices like “green” technology, is born. Hoover Dam this energy. the turbine, created by Charles Patton. such as wind turbines. Wind turbines fi _\ | 1825 | 1881 1883-84 1950s The electromagnet ] The world’s first public The Tesla coil Nuclear power This device, built by | electric lighting Serbian-American Scientists discover that atoms Joseph Henry, uses two The English town of inventor Nikola Tesla can be used—in controlled nuclear metal plates, which are Godalming, Surrey, develops a coil that can reactions—as a source of energy put in acid in order to brings to a close the era transmit electricity over to heat water, which then generates form a voltaic cell. of the gas lamp when it long distances—it is a electricity. By 1951, the first = wires its streets with crucial discovery that aids nuclear power plant is built Henry's electromagnet electric lighting. Tesla coil the spread of electricity. in Arco, Idaho, in the US. Horse and coach at a London station leaving to deliver mail. The development of stagecoaches meant post could be delivered all over Britain. EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT OF New Zealand had gradually increased over the previous decade, and included the introduction of many missions. Settlers traded with the Maori, who were already living on the isLand—exchanging European muskets for Maori crops and livestock. This had led to an arms race between rival tribes in the Maori Musket Wars (1820-35). The British wanted to establish a colony and the New Zealand Company was set up, selling land for settlement (see 1835). A ship of settlers left for New Zealand in 1839, All involved were aware of potential hostility from the Maori. In 1840, William Hobson (1792- 1842], lieutenant-governor of New Zealand, approached Maori chiefs with the Treaty of Waitangi. This offered protection by the British in exchange for ceding sovereignty. 2,050 non-Maori population __s New Zealand’s population in 1840 The European population was still very small at the end of 1840, though the Treaty of Waitangi opened the way for further settlement. | Tamati Waka Nene | Nene was a warrior and chieftain of | the Maori Ngatihoa tribe in the early + 19th century. He spoke out in favor : of the Treaty of Waitangi. The Maori would keep their land = onthe basis that if they sold it only : the British Crown could buy it. : There was much opposition to : the treaty but some Maori chiefs : believed that the British presence : would bring stability to the : country. On May 21 sovereignty was proclaimed over the territory. In Britain, the postal system i was reformed. Improved : transportation made it possible to © deliver mail all over the country, : but costs rose as postage was : paid for on receipt, based on : distance traveled. A “penny post” system was proposed, whereby : any letter could be sent anywhere : in the country for a penny, and © postage would be prepaid using stamps. These measures came into force in 1840 and was the first : system of its kind in the world. The port of Hong Kong was key to Britain’s trade in the East. AS CHINESE AND BRITISH TROOPS continued to fight in the Opium War, Britain’s ships sailed up the Pearl River, capturing forts around Canton, followed by the ports of Amoy and Ningpo. The British also occupied the key port of Hong Kong. A preliminary agreement to end the war, drafted in January and known as the Convention of Chuenpee, ceded Hong Kong to the British, but the document was written amid continued hostilities and was never ratified. Egypt and the Turks, meanwhile, ended their second war over Syria (see 1839], with Egyptian troops withdrawing from Syria. ote is haya tay ota! Aes th he horse tpt ool Mirenth pooh the Amy dormer of Peeters =. = KG awe \ An illustration depicting a caravan of African sl. laves. The slave trade remained prevalent in many parts of the world despite a growing effort to eradicate it. THE OPIUM WAR between Britain and China finally came to an end after British troops took further territory, reaching Nanking in August. Chinese officials sued for peace, resulting in the Treaty of Nanking on August 29. China was forced to pay an indemnity of $20 million to the British and officially cede Hong Kong. It was also made to open the ports of Canton, Amoy, : Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai to British trade. These cities became known as ‘treaty ports.” Industrialization and the mining industry resulted in many children being forced to work under dirty and dangerous conditions. In Britain, social reformer Anthony Ashley Cooper, seventh earl of Shaftesbury (1801-85), became a ae a 4) eee a 7 ~ 7s 2 ? 2 5 na 4 * > aed . SPAPRVae Ther : driving force for the Mines Act of | 1842, prohibiting children under : ten and women from working in : mines. In the US, the state of : Massachusetts passed legislation © to limit a child’s work day to ten : hours. Belgium’s King Leopold | : also tried to regulate child and : female labor conditions, but his plans were rejected. The slave trade and the practice of slavery still persisted in many : countries. France had brought » slavery back to its colonies [see : 1803], and while Spain had signed a treaty over abolition in 1817 with the British, who had abolished the : Slave trade in 1807, it was not : enforced for decades. Likewise, Portugal's 1818 treaty with Britain © and subsequent treaties were i not honored, nor was slavery abolished in its colonies. However, in 1842, a further treaty allowed British ships to attack Portuguese slave ships off East Africa. The Portuguese colony of Mozambique was a huge slave port, with 15,000 slaves a year taken from 1820 to 1830. emp heRAEP SH Treaty of Nanking This treaty ended the three-year Opium War, gave Britain control of Hong Kong, and opened up five “treaty ports” to traders. ‘ 4 » Pos Ne Ve 22? oo o> 00 c S Sook’ 2" ot s ee gf RS a or Or ws ° b get dt (8 Co 3 oe WORT 90 0 Ah oF Mg CC werd $e ch gn? BGO Ruston co yp" co Ss ae om se ee ee? oe es oe oe ae os EO Beg 0P N? rw’ CS 3+ 0 pe? do? wx? oe a gto Se se Wwe om Ne aw aot hos e ors Ete ee ) RSS & or ic we S ¥ Oy we 00 5 So" AQ Mose xe A 8? 95 $V 07 iS oo 2 ws ers « eres ee = ny ers ow = gh oe om Mes eed eo? ary pr wr a oY oo Coes LF oF ae f° 6% aprr® Po” FF pa oO 2 e gS , © wee RY oe > < SSS “ xs) yor? Vy ™ pe? wok weg oes a cs R Ss aS xe ge? RO gh yore ° x oe 300 44 WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT? 99 Samuel Morse, American artist and inventor, in his telegraph message A portrait of Abdul Rahman. His father, Faisal, revived Saudi fortunes. THE OTTOMAN DESTRUCTION OF the first Saudi state (see 1818), established by the Wahhabi movement and Saud family, did not prevent the founding of a second Saudi state in 1824. After initial upheavals, Faisal al-Saud, second leader of the second state, resumed his rule in 1843, and led the state successfully until 1865. In South Africa, after a series of victories against the Zulu people, Boer settlers (see 1880) established the Republic of Natal in the southeast of the country. The territory was annexed by the 12,000 THE NUMBER OF BOERS WHO MIGRATED FROM THE CAPE COLONY British in 1843. Many Boers decided to move farther north to what later became the Transvaal and the Orange Free State, joining the emigration of Boers from the Cape Colony, in a move known as the Great Trek. Despite the treaty between the Maori and the British in New Zealand (see 1840], the issue of illegal land sales caused increased tensions, culminating in the Wairau Massacre on June 17, in which a chief's wife and 22 Europeans were killed. With the backing of the US Congress, Samuel Morse managed to have wires built that could transmit messages. Friedrich Engels The Prussian philosopher wrote about the condition of the working classes in England. His work with Karl Marx made him famous. FRIEDERICH ENGELS (1820-95) was the son of a prosperous businessman who owned textile mills in Prussia and a cotton mill in England. He went to work at the family firm in Manchester in 1841, but he lived a double life. In his spare time he met workers and studied the economic conditions of people in England, and the result of his work was a book, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, in which Engels described working-class life. Around this time he also began a lifelong friendship with fellow writer and philosopher, Karl Marx (1818-83), and the two went on to publish hugely influential works about capitalism and communism. In the Caribbean, a group of conspirators known as La Trinitaria, led by Juan Pablo Duarte (1813-76), launched their fight for the independence of the Spanish-speaking side of the island of Hispaniola (see 1822). With neighboring Haiti distracted by its own civil war, Duarte and his fellow rebels were able to eject the Haitians and declared the new Dominican Republic independent from Haiti on February 27. Meanwhile, Samuel Morse (see 1837] had managed to get funding from the US government to build the first telegraph line in the US from Baltimore to Washington. The line was completed in 1844. In his first public demonstration of the telegraph that year he sent a message that famously read “What hath God wrought?” Glass and iron The Palm House at the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, UK, was built in 1844, constructed with plate glass and iron. It was the first large-scale structure to be made using wrought iron. A painting depicts sufferers of the Irish famine. One million died when the potato crop failed over successive years, while millions more left the island forever. POPULATION IN MILLIONS 1841 1851 1901 Population decline in Ireland Partly due to famine deaths, but mostly due to massive emigration to escape deprivation, Irelands population had halved by the 1900s. SUCCESSIVE FAILURES OF THE potato crop in Ireland triggered a famine that lasted five years and left more than one million people dead. The crop failure, due to late blight [see panel, right), was particularly devastating because for millions of the rural poor, the potato was their staple food. The British government's response was limited. Rather than intervene directly, it directed landlords to shoulder the burden. However, as many small tenant farmers had No crops to sell, rents went unpaid and landlords ran their tenants off the land. Landowners soon were unable or unwilling to provide local poor relief. To compound matters, many larger farms continued to export grain, meat, and other foods to Britain as there © was no market for them in Ireland, given that there was little extra money available for the purchase of such goods. The fact that these foods were not given to the millions who were starving in Ireland, further strained relations between the Irish people and the : British government. Many Irish decided to emigrate and more : than two million people left for © Britain, Canada, and the US, © contributing to the decline in : population from 8 million to 6.5 : million between 1841 to 1851. On the other side of the Atlantic, the Republic of Texas had been © trying unsuccessfully to join the : US since 1836. When it became © clear that Britain had a stake in ' keeping Texas independent, to halt US westward expansion, the suit : was finally approved in December. a . POTATO BLIGHT The blight responsible for the failure of Ireland's potato crop was Phytophthora infestans, a mold that caused rot within two weeks. Blight spreads quickly when humidity stays above 75 percent and temperatures above 50°F (10°C) for two full days; both factors were present during the summer of 1845. By autumn the crop was lost and people abandoned the land. ae ene, Eos ee oti! Reus Pra eek he ees COE ye Oe Saher we as 2 sa! & See FO ge at y%o™ SS = Soe _ 0" oe x wo 2° Oe AW 3 ny weer Eo ooo ec O° so ae wot Rs pose ok oat ot? 50° x ree oe, oe oo of esr eae a Go ait Ses Sans 2 0 oo Font Woo? F xo aX At 0? 9% 2% Gog soa S ee OS a” oO? x aM oh y® Reece sXe oo Wot Orc wrt waerio®™ FPG gh ora Je oor © Mpeeord Se WE Who So eee a 8 an ss Me so ‘Be so D ee Ge? oom oe” yo" > ron yor Soe ORGS se y se en wh os oso Fore" cote 8 oH ye RS Coa wo O20 SO 09 ed w ¢ oe ge Shoe ae KY ‘ Ny & & ¥ o 4 - x $ os & is a ° seo s a nare oO 0 RORY Koos re ss Roe Re ces 5 x oan = aoe oti shar or roe a sore ote ce ror CCS CNS oF 28 ok 3 Poe hes WF QS ae Na” ye at & AE QO MV Dao yok ran” ae ven Ss we pet aren WP ne co Wh se? os Fo a) 42 x aX os er ge 308 IN MEXICO, AN EXPEDITION OF British, French, and Spanish forces arrived to collect payment on the money they were owed. After the War of the Reform (see declared in 1861 that he was placing a moratorium on the payment of interest on foreign debt for two years. The lending countries disputed his decision, and soon resorted to armed conflict. France sent in troops, ‘\. which faced a defeat +1 OTTO VON BISMARCK (1815-98) One of Prussia’s most influential leaders, Otto von Bismarck came into power as prime minister in 1862 and he masterminded the unification of Germany (see 1871). Bismarck built up the army and also tried to develop a German national identity; he fought against the Catholic Church and tried to stem the growth of socialism. 44 POLITICS IS THE ART OF THE POSSIBLE. 99 Otto von Bismarck in a remark to Meyer von Waldeck, August 11, 1867 1858) President Benito Juarez had = early on, but reinforcements © eventually reached Mexico City. Napoleon III saw an opportunity to | establish an empire in Mexico. Farther north, in the American Civil War, Union troops attempted, but failed, to capture the Confederate capital, Richmond, by advancing up the peninsula east of Yorktown. This was followed by the Second Battle of Bull Run (August 28-30, see p.310), which saw 70,000 Union troops defeated : by 55,000 Confederates. A few weeks later, on September 17, one of the bloodiest battles of the war took place at Antietam, in : Maryland, where Union troops : suffered around 12,000 casualties : and the Confederates around : 11,000. Farther west, Union troops under General Ulysses S. Grant : (1822-85) won a crucial victory at : the Battle of Shiloh, Tennessee. In Japan, the Tokugawa regime had become increasingly suspicious of foreigners (see : 1853), taking measures that included the passing of anti- foreigner acts and efforts to expel people. This precipitated attacks on ships from the US, : Britain, France, and the _ Netherlands. In retaliation, in 1863 the US fired on two Japanese ships and French warships fired : on—and subsequently burned : down—a small village. The : following year, France, Britain, the Netherlands, and the US sailed into the Straits of Shimonosekei : and destroyed Japanese batteries along its coast. They eventually : secured a treaty giving them free passage and the right to trade. q THE SITUATION IN MEXICO became more complex as conservative Mexicans, still angry about their defeat in the War of the Reform (see 1858), capitalized on the fighting between French and Mexican troops (see 1862) and conspired with Napoleon III to overthrow the government. As a result, Austrian archduke Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph (1832-67) was invited to become emperor of Mexico. He accepted, thinking that he had been voted in by the people, and became Maximilian | the following year. In the US, Abraham Lincoln tried to persuade Confederate states to return to the Union by giving them v= Emancipation proclamation Abraham Lincoln reads the Emancipation Proclamation before his cabinet members. The decree abolished slavery in the US. Workers hurry to catch their morning train at the Gower Street station on the Metropolitan (underground) railroad in London. | PASSENGERS ON THE _) FIRST DAY OF THE ~ METROPOLITAN LINE the option of abolishing slavery gradually, rather than immediately. Not one state took up his offer, so on January 1, he followed through with his plan and issued the Emancipation Proclamation, abolishing slavery in the South. On the battlefields, Union troops were making serious gains in the south, as General Grant captured the Mississippi port of Vicksburg in July, giving Union forces control over key parts of the Mississippi River. The Union Navy, meanwhile, had captured the port of New Orleans, and occupation of the city followed. Farther north, Confederate defeat at the Battle : of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, from July 1-3, had marked a turning point in the war. In Britain, Londoners were thrilled by the opening of the Metropolitan Railway, which ran underground, from Farringdon Street to Paddington. This was the first part of what would eventually become the London Underground, also known as the Tube. Other train companies soon followed suit. Prussia and Denmark went to war over Schleswig and Holstein. IN THE ONGOING AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, President Lincoln made General Grant commander-in- chief of the Union forces. A few months later, Union general William T. Sherman (1820-91), began his “march to the sea.” Sherman pursued a “scorched earth” policy, destroying rail lines and setting towns on fire from Atlanta to Savannah, Georgia. Relations between Denmark and Prussia, part of the German Confederation, had soured. A brief war was the result of a revolt by the Germans in the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were living under Danish rule. Prussian troops occupied the territory and by August 1, Denmark gave up rights to the duchies, which were to be placed under joint Austrian and Prussian rule—a situation that would become a future source of conflict (see 1866). 38,000 Danish troops 61,000 German Confederation The Prussian—Danish War The war began when Prussian forces crossed the border into Schleswig, and Denmark was forced to relinquish control of the duchy. 1750-1913 | THE AGE OF REVOLUTION ORIGINS OF THE CIVIL WAR As the US expanded, the issue of which states would be allowed to have slaves became the central political focus between North and South. By 1860, the 7 18 free states of the North and the 15 slave states were on the brink of war. TERRITORY MINNESOTA TERRITORY, WISCONSIN MICHIGAN MICHIGAN MAINE 1820: THE MISSOURI vat) American TERRITORY — VERMONT, he COMPROMISE rernirory Indian PENNSYLVANIA HAMPSHIRE territory, = Slavery became a more Raa MASSACHUSETTS |" bracsing political issue as TERRITORY. -. gia the US began to settle its ILLINOIS seettreeedl western territories. When N 3 ES tine the Missouri territory wissourr KENTUCKY AERA) Perenee eae: a state ARKANSAS TENNESSEE NORTH CAROLINA We DISSES SEW TERRITORY prompted a political crisis. KEY ad aay The outcome was the MISSISSIPPI GEORGIA 4 = i . fl Free states BH Slave states Missouri Compromise, which Cone | ncruenired allowed slavery in Missouri Bl Free territories J Territories where slavery legal | territory i de but not in any new state north of 36°30’ latitude. FLORIDA ARKANSAS KEY 1 Free states I Slave states Gi Free territories Antietam Harpers Ferry ll Territories where slavery legal Sep 17, 1862, Sept 12-15, 1862 Bull Run Gettysburg a Jul 21, 1861, Jul 1-3, 1863 ; 29-30, 1862 Columbus Chancellorsville sug ILLINOIS Indianapolis Apr 30-May 6, 1863 eee . The Wilderness Cincinnati Apr 30, 1863 INDIANA May 5-6, 1864 Louisville — ‘< > R Staunton . Jun 8-9, 1862 Richmon Saint . Cold Harbor. VIRGINIA Jun 3, 1864 Bentonville SESE TENNESSEE 4 Stones River S€ Knoxville 1850: ANEW COMPROMISE Thirty years after the Missouri Compromise, the debate over slavery intensified as the US extended farther west. Senator Henry Clay organized a series of bills that were considered a compromise. California was to be admitted as a free state but the controversial Fugitive Slave Act, which penalized officials who did not arrest alleged runaway slaves, was also passed, angering abolitionists. NEW )JERSEY Washington Fredericksburg Dec 13, 1862 Spotsylvania Court House May 8-12, 1864 Seven Days Battle Jun 25-Jul 1, 1862 Fort Monroe Jun 26-Jul 2, 1862 Columbia (a) “4, ; Dec 314186; Nov 17-29, 1863: 4? wa Memphis Jan2, 163 City besieged Ny 4 tt Haters Jun 5, 1862 ARKANSAS hattanooga Z ‘Aug 29, 1862 Franklin Fort Macon Nov 30, 1864 S. CAROLINA Mar 23-Apr 26, 1862 Shiloh/ Pittsburg Chickamauga — Mets eee Landing Sep 19-20, 1863 7 Wilmington Apr 6-7, 1862 — : - i ‘March to the sea Charleston MISSISSIPPI / Atlanta — Fort Sumter Jul 20-Sep 2, 1864 » 2 — Apr 12-14, 1861 LOUISIANA € Vicksburg : —— BM ee ALABAMA Fort Pulaski Feb 17, 1862 pty Resieded Apr 12, 1862 Port Hudson i s Fort Mobile May 21-Jul 9, 1863 Pickens __ Apr 12, 1865 GEORGIA Fernandia Pensacola yeu Baton Rouge May 9-10, 1862 Jacksonville Aug 5, 1862 Z = Tallahassee Mar 11, 1862 e, > , << \\_ Mobile Bay ay a Su Mee New Orleans SS ee , Mar 9, 1862 Apr 18-29, 1862 , Ship Island fom act son a ror Sep 17, 1861 St Philip Se x FLORIDA Gulf Of Mexico ATLANTIC OCEAN 1861: CIVIL WAR The bombardment of Fort Sumter in South Carolina triggered a ferocious conflict that would consume the whole country for four brutal, bloody years, until the Confederacy had no choice but to surrender. KEY BB Union States 1861 I Confederate states 1861 ] States that voted to join Confederacy Union front line to December 1861 Union front line to December 1862 =~ Union front line to December 1864 Union movements ~-» Confederate movements Union forts 1) Confederate forts Union naval blockade Union victory +< Confederate victory Inconclusive battle ~& City destroyed by Union forces — 1854: THE KANSAS- NEBRASKA ACT One of the compromise acts in 1850 was to allow the Utah and New Mexico territories to reach a decision on slavery when they became states, The Kansas-Nebraska Act applied this principle for people in SEs) KANSAS TERRITORY those states, allowing them to vote on the issue. This act also American veindian controversially repealed the eee Missouri Compromise, causing further anger in the North. WASHINGTON TERRITORY NEBRASKA TERRITORY OREGON TERRITORY KEY KEY i Free states i Territories where slavery legal I Free states Bl Freeterritories J Territories newly opened to slavery 1854 I Slave states BB Slave states BB Area not subject to standard territorial laws AMERICAN CIVIL WAR The shells fired at Fort Sumter, South Carolina, in 1861 not only ripped the country in two, but also began a deadly conflict that would pit families against each other, with brother fighting brother on the battlefield, as the Confederacy of Southern states took up arms in defense of slavery. a restaurant in Richmond, Virginia, reached around $5 by 1864. By the time the South conceded defeat and surrendered in 1865, both sides had been heavily battered—but the country emerged united. The war was also significant because it was the harbinger of modern warfare. Infrastructure The issue was not only ideological, but also economic. Southerners felt that their rural, agrarian livelihood was under direct threat from the policies of the federal government. And for the industrial and urban North and President Abraham Lincoln, the question was about more than freedom for slaves. Without the 15 slave states, Bl Territories opened to slavery 1 Area not subject to standard territorial laws AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 1857: THE DRED SCOTT DECISION The growing abolitionist cause received a setback when the Supreme Court ruled in the case of Dred Scott v. John F. A. Sandford {see 1857] that slavery was legal in all the territories. The judges also declared that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional. They argued that it was up to states to decide to ban slavery, but that territories were not states. OVER THE COURSE OF THE CIVIL WAR, THE UNION PROVIDED SOLDIERS WITH BILLION ROUNDS OF AMMUNITION MILLION 100°: OF COFFEE MILLION 1 0 PAIRS OF PANTS MILLION 1 HORSES AND MULES what would the future hold for the Union? The war cost billions and destroyed the Southern economy. The Union navy blockaded ports causing prices in the South to skyrocket; the price of a cup coffee in Populations The industrial North had a much larger population than the mostly agrarian Southern states. 23 MILLION UNION POPULATION developments, such as railroads, and technological innovations in armaments like breech-loading rifles had changed the nature of battle, and led to a much higher number of casualties. outnumbered, the fighting continued for four years, ARR: Outnumbered 3 Despite the South being significantly leaving some 600,000 dead. COST IN US DOLLARS (MILLIONS) 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 YEARS OF CIVIL WAR PERIOD KEY © Union army expenditure Cost of the war Billions were spent fighting the Civil War, with the army and navy costing the Union millions during this period. The estimated cost to the Confederacy, including the emancipation of the slaves, was around $2.1 billion, inflicting serious damage to the Southern economy. Union navy expenditure “(is The War of the Triple Alliance devastated Paraguay. This painting by Candido L6pez depicts the arrival of the Allied Army at Itapiru, Paraguay. THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR DREW TO ACLOSE. By the spring, Union troops had captured the Confederate capital of Richmond, and after several other defeats, Confederate general Robert E. Lee (1807-70) saw no other option : but to surrender on April 9, signaling the end to the bloodiest conflict the US had seen. The war had left the US intact, but more than 600,000 men had been killed and half a million wounded. The new peace was soon marred: only a few days after the Union's victory, President Lincoln attended Ford's Theater in Washington, DC. There, Confederate John Wilkes Booth crept into the state box and shot him. Lincoln died the following morning on April 15. The American Civil War was over, but the situation in Mexico remained complicated. US troops were deployed there because the : 70), declared war on Brazil, and : shortly after, on Argentina. : Uruguay aligned itself with Brazil | treaty was negotiated. The war i : devastated Paraguay, reducing the ; = population of 525,000 to 221,000. : who had been denied government : land for planting stormed the : US government under Andrew Johnson (1808-75) objected to French intervention in Mexican affairs (see 1863). Farther south, a war had : erupted between Paraguay and its neighbors Uruguay, Brazil, and : Argentina. Brazil invaded Uruguay i in 1864 to assist in the overthrow of the ruling party. In response, : the president of Paraguay, Francisco Solano Lépez (1827- and the War of the Triple » Alliance [also Paraguayan War} : began. Lopez was killed in battle on March 1, 1870, and a peace In Jamaica, a group of peasants | Argentina, Brazil, Alliance of and Uruguay : Forces in War of Triple Alliance : Although Paraguay had the far : larger force at first, it was untrained : and without a chain of command : Lopez, as leader made all decisions. ® courthouse in Morant Bay during | a meeting of the parish council, : and 19 white people died in the altercation. In retaliation, : governor Edward Eyre led a : ruthless attack on the black » community, declaring martial law, : and killing hundreds of people while imprisoning hundreds more. When news of this reached Britain there was a public outcry and Eyre was recalled to England. Lincoln's death IN 1866, PERU DECLARED WAR ON SPAIN, JOINED BY CHILE. The cause of the war dated back to the Talambo Affair in 1862, when Spanish immigrants were attacked by Peruvian workers on the Talambo estate in northern Peru. Spain's demand for compensation was ignored, so it seized the Chincha Islands off the coast of Peru in 1864. These were valuable as a source of guano, used as fertilizer. Spain demanded 3 million pesos in exchange for the islands in 1865. Peru's General Mariano Ignacio Prado declared war on Spain in January 1866. Chile, fearful of a renewed Spanish presence in South America, joined Peru. They tried to close their ports, but Spain managed to bombard Valparaiso in Chile on March 31 and Callao in Peru on May 2 before a ceasefire the following week. This was the last attempt by Spain to recapture South American territory. French painter Edouard Manet’s The execution of Maximilian I. 44 A SPECTRE IS HAUNTING EUROPE; THE SPECTRE OF COMMUNISM. 99 Karl Marx, from the Communist Manifesto, 1848 FRANCE’S ATTEMPT TO GAIN CONTROL OF MEXICO (see 1863) seemed doomed with the arrival of US reinforcements. France abandoned Mexico's emperor, Maximilian |, who had been installed at their behest as well as that of Mexican monarchists. He was captured by liberal forces, court-martialed, and executed on June 19. Benito Juarez then returned to his post as president. Farther north, the size of the US received a huge boost with the purchase of the vast Alaska territory from Russia. For the price of $7.2 million, the US received 663,268 sq miles (1,717,856sq km} of territory. In Europe, Karl Marx (see panel, right) had published the first of three volumes in what would become one of his most influential works, Das Kapital. The book, through an examination of the capitalist system, tried to address larger economic and historical questions about the nature of class and social relations. This painting by Alonzo | Battle of Callao i A : Chi L depicts th A detail of a painting shows Peruvian In Prussia, tensions with Beet areade f ifi Austria had led to the Seven death of Abraham troops defending the fortified port of x e Lincoln, 16th President | Callao, Peru, while being bombarded | Weeks’ War the previous year. of the United States. by the Spanish navy. Under the resulting Treaty of $ @ 3 ~ SRY © & ROD oe oe oY oe a o S oh MEN RO ae S Pk ah 6 ge oe 3 «se Fes a “2 oe on aS or row oes x So ™ Sei oth sl cy ee —S BO prom OP GM? Pe ee BS ag oor Wr argu. %or R 3 s oF ee oie oo” 7 o%e™ Dares SECA SECIS OG ere ot SG oo" “yah pe aw ea oe oo oe? ws ote a SF oe Wo" yw Fo ero 2 pee? 00 wer ge oe? cod BF yFe™ ee e es fo yer ‘ 3s y x wa ra S Q Ae Se x \ oe sr & oe Ss So S es) & oO GO™ ck of See Re ae - os gos aes y of a S = ero! wre os se OV oo . 2 AS vis tO SES BO Fp Ae Orne ee ON Pond”? ADP" ot oS oo tes’ ee Rt ww yp’ ee es < yp ee ge? Ween? ne “at? a > eo aw = fo se is) es ~ <> ow ee ont x oe ae oo x OF & get Oe ood RS o 46... REJOICE THAT I HAVE LIVED TO SEE THIS DAY, WHEN THE COLORED PEOPLE... HAVE EQUAL PRIVILEGES WITH THE MOST FAVORED. 99 Thomas Garrett, American abolitionist, on the passing of the 15th Amendment This painting shows battleships in the Ten Years’ War (1868-78), which was part of the long-running struggle for Cuba’s independence from Spain. KARL MARX [1818-83] Karl Marx was a German philosopher, political economist, historian, political theorist, sociologist, and communist revolutionary, whose ideas played a significant role in the development of modern communism and socialism— theories collectively known as Marxism. His critique of capitalism, Das Kapital, remains influential today. Prague, Prussia received Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Nassau, and Frankfurt, allowing it to organize the North German Confederation. The king of Prussia, William | (1797-1888) was at its helm, backed by Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck (see 1862). Austria also gave up control of the Venetia (Venice], allowing the region to be unified with Italy. WITH THE FALL IN 1868 OF THE TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE in Japan and the rise of the emperor Meiji Tenno (1852-1912), the island reversed its policy of isolationism and began a program of Westernization, with the aim of being able to stand up to the Western powers that were demanding access to Japan [see 1853). This period, known as the Meiji Restoration, was a time of long-lasting fundamental social reforms, such as the ending of feudalism, formation of a national army, and implementation of tax systems, with a constitutional government being convened by 1890, There was a boom in infrastructure modernization throughout this period, with the arrival of railroads and the telegraph. In Cuba, discontent with the Spanish regime had been growing. When Queen Isabella I! (1830-1904) was deposed by a military rebellion in Spain, Cubans seeking independence took the opportunity to launch a war against the Spanish rulers on their island. Led by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, this uprising, known as El Grito de Yara (The Cry of Yara], resulted in The Ten Years’ War (1868-78), a campaign of guerilla warfare that ended in failure for the Cuban rebels. Meiji vase A Japanese Satsuma cabinet vase from the Meiji period. Art was well supported by the Japanese government during this period. In the same year, there was also an uprising against Spanish rule in Puerto Rico. The Lares uprising, or El Grito de Lares, was shortlived and, like the Cuban uprising, also ended in failure. In South Africa, British control was spreading. Boer settlers had moved away from the Cape Colony, taking land from local tribes, including the neighboring Basutoland. Sotho leader Moshoeshoe | (c. 1786-1870) asked Britain for help against further incursions into Sotho territory, and the result was that the kingdom was annexed to the British Crown in 1868, becoming a protectorate. On Moshoeshoe’s death in 1870, it was made part of the Cape Colony region without consulting the Sotho people. AS RECONSTRUCTION CONTINUED in the war-torn southern US, Congress enacted an amendment states in February 1869—that extended the right to vote to all black men, whether they had been enslaved or not. The Fifteenth Amendment declared that “the rights of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude”. Meanwhile, westward expansion in the US continued to grow, aided by the arrival of railroads. By 1869, the first transcontinental railroad had been completed by the Central Pacific Railroad. The project was supported by government bonds. Part of the track was started from Sacramento, California, heading in Promontory, Utah, on May 10, 1869. Much of the work on this stretch of railroad was done by more than 10,000 Chinese to the Constitution—ratified by the : east and joining with existing lines : _ Grand opening | The opening of the Suez Canal, Port : Said, Egypt. The project took a : decade to complete but its impact on global trade was immediate. : immigrant laborers. The © construction of this line allowed rapid coast-to-coast travel in : the US, further facilitating : western settlement. Another feat of engineering also i opened around the same time— : the Suez Canal (see 1859). After : a decade of construction, this : canal linked the Mediterranean © and Red seas, and provided a » much quicker passage to the : Indian Ocean. In South Africa, diamonds had been discovered in the Northern : Cape province in 1864, and soon = arush was on between the Boers, : British, and native people to mine : them. The British swiftly stepped : in to annex the territory while thousands of prospectors © arrived to try their luck. > s& oe & oo 3 ® oe wg oe nace % sa Ba e Ngee or =e ce Rote Heo Kase ori) See a0} en? aye > Se. Or ok 5 yer net Pid omes = SS ew > ea 3 CP CSICE NY ft RRC OI oe et Fe Woo cd 30° © A » “ Rass we 2 ae aD OO ce?" se See ee erg errinenes RRC POR IAS a xo oo ge oh ah? 6 iomracheoene RO ee OP 4o%* 9% ser oo gs SO OS Oe 0 GP? KG goo i Wr el! 3 oS cs q ‘ Ra ee? Sa oS a Ws oes ve od eo Re QP VF oF as 8 Ase OY os > oo me Ext yt Ss sot oe warty o 3 _ me This 19th-century painting depicts Prussian hussars firing up at a French observation balloon during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. 44 THE ARMY IS THE TRUE NOBILITY OF OUR COUNTRY. 99 Napoleon III, Emperor of the French PRUSSIA’S VICTORY IN THE SEVEN WEEKS’ WAR (see 1867] gave the impetus to further pursue plans for German unification, this time by bringing the southern German states into the union. Attempts had also been made to place Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern- : Sigmaringen (1835-1905) on the Spanish throne, left vacant after Queen Isabella II's deposition in 1868 [see panel, 1872). Intense French diplomatic pressure from Napoleon III prevented this. Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian prime i : minister, however, wished to provoke France into war. To these ends he published the Ems : telegram [as it was later known], editing it to appear as though © insults had been exchanged : between King Wilhelm | of Prussia i : and the French Ambassador. France declared war on Prussia on July 19. Prussia was victorious : at the battles of Gravelotte + on August 18, and Sedan on : September 1, where an ill ' Napoleon surrendered to | German forces and was taken prisoner. While Napoleon was held captive, a provisional : government for national defense was set up in Bordeaux where it : was decided to depose him and : establish the Third Republic. By | mid-September, the Prussians : had besieged Paris. The city was forced to surrender in early 1871 after severe food shortages. By March, an armistice had been PERCENTAGE So o- a 1869 1889 = 1909-1929 | Immigration in Argentina : This graphic shows the steady rise : in the percentage of Spanish and : Italian immigrants who arrived in i Argentina between 1869 and 1929. i agreed and Germany was given : the regions of Alsace and : Lorraine. Meanwhile, a steady stream of : immigrants escaping poverty and » war in Europe flowed to the : Americas. In the US, the : population hit 40 million and by : the end of the century it would nearly double to 76 million. Likewise, in Argentina the 1870 population of 1.8 million would reach 8 million by 1914, with many immigrants from Italy and Spain—both places that had been seriously affected by years of warfare. Siege of Paris The siege resulted in the capture of the city by Prussian forces, leading to a humiliating French defeat in the Franco- Prussian War. Men at their battery during the war between the Third Republic and the Paris Commune that erupted at the end of the Franco-Prussian war. S @Copenhagen Bolin Sea IKonigsberg Hathibur #Rdbtock Xs , pe ebandig Amsterd Bremen * MECKLENBURG, ») POME™ wesr EAST PRUSSIA The Hague EST NETHERLANDS HANOVER: VA PRUSSIA y & 2 ‘sBertin yee goseN RUSSIA STE e. Fe BRANDENSY” «Posey <) THURINGIAN STATES CEES Cologne - Leipzig SAXONY es POLAND luremberg risruhe 1 BAVARIA ‘eStuttgart WURTTEMBERG . Munich ‘SWITZERLAND German unification This map shows the newly unified German Empire, which was organized after Prussia’s victory in the Franco-Prussian War. ITALIAN TROOPS HAD ENTERED ROME the previous September and in October a plebiscite, or referendum, made Rome the capital of the united Italy—which became official by 1871. The pope, however, was not pleased with his settlement offer and excommunicated Italian king Victor Emmanuel Il, entrenching himself in the Vatican while Rome developed as the new capital. The tension between the Vatican and the Italian government would not be resolved until the 20th century. While France and Prussia were negotiating the end of the Franco-Prussian war in 1871, angry Parisians had risen up over the surrender and established the % es), KEY ™ Prussian invasion of France in Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 = boundary of German Empire 1871 Prussian gains by 1866 other states in North German Confederation 1867 other German states 1866 Austro-Hungarian empire 1867 : radical Paris Commune. A council | of citizens—including republicans, : Jacobins, socialists, and © anarchists—governed Paris for : over two months. The retaliation : of the National Assembly, which : had relocated to Versailles, was | swift. Troops were sent to Paris © and 20,000 people were killed. © Following victory against France, : Wilhelm | of Prussia declared : himself Emperor of Germany : and named Bismarck (see 1862) : as Chancellor. In South Africa, a diamond rush | [see 1869] in the Northern Cape » was followed by the discovery of | gold in the Transvaal region. This : sparked the arrival of thousands | of prospectors to the region. oe BP Bes sg, ee: a s & 3 my) > Na Se Ae rer ge om ® sho, oe 00 pO oF ey S gt ore’ WV ook oo gt Cae eh? co Co ae OCs aX ge 06 ONS soe" OU a oOo" SW ot oh we are gF co eset or QP A yh NE pF oi OO y BF oY Sh pe She" re oo pee CNS : =o . ° 08 s oe oe a ne ¢ é C D w cs - - aye oe ae oo SS arya ered oes Oo ee eh oN x Re eer oft sah og or pe? 9H 8% 0 8 ao? Aw ge AO ae dX ot ws £7 ¥ he eae oN gh wt P° a gh ROerORNS 2 pe ohn Or F Po os s : ‘ We gel? ig eMugy? a” WE eT oro Cai a ee o* we we ~ o oO ot RS cS Wet » 314 THE FINE IMPOSED ON SUSAN B. ANTHONY FOR VOTING IN THE AFRICAN KINGDOM OF ETHIOPIA, Yohannes IV (1831-89) was crowned emperor. He was considered a strong ruler, staving off the increasing incursions from Europeans as well as from African neighbors. By the end of the following decade, Ethiopia had defeated invasions by Egyptian forces, as well as Italian forces. In the US, pressure was growing for women to be given the right to vote. One of the leading advocates : was Susan B. Anthony (1820- 1906), who, during the 1872 A portrait of the US women’s suffragist leader Susan B. Anthony, who brought her campaign to public attention by illegally voting in 1872. : presidential election, marched up : to the polling station in Rochester, + New York and cast her vote in defiance of the law. She was arrested and fined. Although she refused to pay the fine, the court case did not continue and Anthony carried on with her crusade. Meanwhile, in New York, Captain Benjamin Briggs set out to cross the Atlantic on the ship Mary Celeste on November 7. By December 4, the crew of the Dei : Gratia spotted the Mary Celeste drifting around the coast of Portugal completely deserted. The life boat was missing and the ship had drifted some 700 miles © (1,100km) from the last point entered in the log. Its crew was never seen again, and the maritime mystery was never solved. In France, physicist Louis Ducos du Hauron had been working on creating a color photograph using a three-color principle. He patented his process in 1868 and went on to produce some of the earliest color photographs. The 19th century in Spain was dominated by the Carlist Wars. These civil wars began in 1834, triggered by the death of Ferdinand VII. The conservative Carlists did not want the king's daughter, Isabella (1830-1904), to take the throne, but rather Ferdinand’s brother, Don Carlos (1788-1855). After three wars, the dispute was resolved in 1876 with the accession of Isabella's son Alfonso XII (1857-85) to the throne, who drove some 10,000 Carlists out of Spain. % 46 THE MAIN THING ISTO MAKE HISTORY, NOT TO WRITE IT. 99 Otto von Bismarck, 19th-century German statesman Royal Canadian Mounted Police “Mounties,” as they became known, wearing their distinctive uniforms at an annual sports event at Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada. EAGER TO PROTECT GERMANY’S GROWING POWER, Bismarck proposed the Three Emperors’ League, an alliance between Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Russia, with the purposeful exclusion of France. Formed in 1873, the league lasted for three years, was later reestablished in secret in 1881 and renewed in 1884, and finally collapsed in 1887. At issue were the continued conflicts of interest between Austria-Hungary and Russia in the Balkan territory. In the Caribbean, the island of Puerto Rico finally abolished slavery. Although the slave trade had been suppressed earlier, the practice had continued on the island and in neighboring Cuba. Both were still under Spanish control. The end of slavery was - >» bi, N { A) announced in May 1873, although an apprenticeship system was putin place, extending slave conditions for some until 1876. In Canada, the North West Mounted Rifles was formed to enforce the law on a national and local level. The force was charged with policing the largely rural provinces of the huge Canadian territory. The initial few hundred officers had some 300,000 sqmiles (800,000 sqkm) under their jurisdiction. But the US was uncomfortable with the idea of armed troops patrolling the border, so the force’s name was changed to the North West Mounted Police—though later the name would be altered again to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, which is still in use, along with the famous abbreviation of “Mounties.” A depiction of Garnet Wolseley’s reception among the Asante people. IN MARCH, BRITISH ARMY OFFICER CHARLES GEORGE GORDON (1833-85) arrived in the province of Equatoria, in the south of Egyptian-occupied Sudan. He was to take control of the territory but under the auspices of the khedive (viceroy) of Egypt. Gordon was tasked with establishing way stations up the White Nile and to attempt to suppress the ongoing slave trade. He mapped parts of the Nile and set up outposts along the river as far as Uganda. He became governor-general of Sudan in 1877. Meanwhile, in West Africa, a British expedition led by Sir Garnet Wolseley (1833-1913) defeated the Asante Empire (present-day Ghana) and asserted control over the southern part of their territory, known as the Gold Coast a We ah Charles George Gordon A British general and colonial administrator, Gordon was invited by Egypt's khedive to govern part of Egypt's Sudan territory. 1750-1913 | panel Elm chair c. 1850 This Ming-style elmwood chair has a shaped crest rail and curved backsplat with openwork cartouches above a beaded apron. decorative THE AGE OF REVOLUTION flowers Soapstone Lohan 1600-1799 This statue shows a Lohan, a human who achieved enlightenment through meditation on the teaching of Buddha. Buddhism flourished during the Qing period. Jade brush holder c. 18th century The detail of this jade brush holder contains the figure of Taoist philosopher Lao Tzu. The ancient Taoist practices were popular in the Ming period but fell out of favor with Qing rulers. Elm cabinet c. 1860 The doors of this black lacquered elm cabinet of rectangular outline are painted with a colorful decoration that includes birds and flowering trees. The Qing dynasty was established after the last Ming i—~S Flask SUE , ees | } 1736-95 lacquer emperor was overthrown in 1644. Rule was instituted } j ni | Supported on a spreading ti circular foot, this flask has by Manchu chieftains, and the Qing period of rule lasted she until 1911. It was a time in which China witnessed a FM tripling of its population to around 450 million. Pr) ashort, contracted neck and ij Ne right-angle handles. The sides >» have bands of exotic blooms. a copper-red underglazing Although the Manchus were seen as outsiders by the Chinese, they maintained their rule for so long by continuing to use the existing form of government from the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). This continuity spilled over into the arts and crafts as well, and much of the work produced in the Qing years was heavily influenced by Ming designs, especially porcelain. head is made of chalcedony Ax head 19th century Made from chalcedony, this translucent green and red ax head has a flat, curved cutting edge. Carved in reliefis a Taotie mask and sleeping silkworms. dragon Belt hook 19th century This jade belt hook has a Taoist design, shaped as two dragons and a bat laid on the outside, a phoenix on one side, and a silkworm pattern on the reverse. Covered box 1736-95 The top of this peach-shaped covered box (the fruit is a symbol of long life) shows a chun {spring] character enclosing, in the center, Shou Lao, the god of longevity, with a dragon on either side. hook is carved from jade intricate carving Blue tea set 1850-99 Part of a set of two, this « porcelain bowl with lid and saucer is decorated with famille rose enamel colors ona blue background, = interior is lined with silver a panels depict __/ the seasons Pewter tea caddy 18th century This tea caddy is constructed from pewter. Its simple design is embellished with floral and calligraphic engravings. Brass wedding bowl 18th century This brass wedding bowlis part of a set of two. This one is lined with silver— the other has a gilt silver interior—and the base has an engraved design. - large bead called Buddha head separates smaller beads subsidiary pP- string of beads a Golden nail guards c. 19th century These elaborate nail guards have peaches symbolize longevity gold openwork with a “cracked ice” pattern. The device was designed to protect the nail of the little finger. rounded designs popular in 19th century THE QING DYNASTY _— lacquered / wooden case and brass caps Portable set of eating implements 1736-95 The contents of this traveling set of eating implements include two pairs of chopsticks, a knife, a pair of forks, and an ivory pick. Sancai teapot 1662-1772 This teapot is sancai porcelain and has a rectangular shape, with raised panels on each side illustrating the four seasons. Ivory necklace for civil servant 1900s These beads are made of painted ceramic and gold leaf. The larger beads, called Buddha heads, divide up the smaller beads into groups of 27. There are also subsidiary strands of 10 blue beads. incised inscription Xian seal 19th century This oval Xian seal has an incised inscription on each of the long sides. The base reads “Living by the Golden Tower.” Pair of bowed shoes 1800-1900 These bowed shoes with pointed toes and high heels were worn for outdoor activities by a woman with bound feet. The sides have an intricate embroidered decoration of birds and flowers. Silk robe c. 19th century This woman’s black silk robe has a pattern of flowers woven into the fabric. The design also includes a springtime ~ S scene involving flowers and butterflies. a “ £ Apaii ing entitled The Victor by Russian war artist Vasily Vereshchagin (1842-190. 4) depicts Turks celebrating a victory during the Russo-Turkish War. Hostilities between Russia and the Ottoman Empire were long-running and the two had gone to battle many times over the previous two centuries. THE RIFT BETWEEN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND ITS SUBJECTS IN Bosnia and Herzegovina grew wider as Christian inhabitants of the two territories rebelled against Ottoman rule, requesting aid from neighboring Serbia, which had a much higher degree of autonomy. Buoyed by Russian promises of support and inspired by the nationalism sweeping through the region, Serbia too declared war on the Ottoman Empire on June 30, 1876; Montenegro followed suit the next day, leading the weakening empire into another destabilizing conflict. Montenegro was initially successful, with a victory in Herzegovina, but Russian support in Serbia did not materialize and the Turks won the battle of Aleksinac on August 9, 1876. This forced the Serbs to appeal to other nations for help. In other parts of the Ottoman world, Egypt continued to make incursions into Ethiopia, leading its king, Yohannes IV (see 1872], to declare war on the Egyptians. The conflict arose because Ismail Pasha (1830-95], the khedive (viceroy) of Egypt, wanted to put settlements on strategic points along the Red Sea coastline in Ethiopian territory (present-day Eritrea). By 1875 Egypt had succeeding in occupying many coastal towns, as well as the inland city of Harar. The fighting lasted until 1877, by which time Ethiopia had managed to defeat two Egyptian ANGER AND UNREST HAD BEEN growing among American Indians in the US, many of whom had been forced off their land. This issue often resulted in armed conflict with US troops. One of the most infamous confrontations was the Battle of Little Bighorn where, on June 25, Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer (1839-76] | » Graham Bell (1847-1922) : patented his device for © “transmitting vocal or other H sounds telegraphically’—the first = : telephone. This development i » would change forever the way the : world communicated. 464 THE NATION THAT SECURES CONTROL OF THE AIR WILL ULTIMATELY CONTROL TH! WORLD. 99 Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish inventor [EI and his men were killed by a coalition of Eastern Sioux and Northern Cheyenne Indians. Around the same time, US forces were fighting the Apache people, Early telephone This early example of a telephone—known as a box telephone—had a trumpetlike mouthpiece and it transmitted sound through the use of an electromagnet. : who lived near the border with : Mexico. They too were angered by : attempts to move them onto a | reservation, and attacked white : settlements. This conflict | continued for another decade : until their leader, Geronimo _ (1829-1909), surrendered in 1886. Elsewhere in the US, a Scottish- born inventor named Alexander In Mexico, former soldier Porfirio | Diaz (see panel, right] tried to © launch a revolt against president | Sebastin Lerdo de Tejada. His : attempt in early 1876 failed and : he fled to the US. He returned in | November and defeated the : government's troops. In May 1877 » he was elected president and | controlled Mexico for decades. Explorer Henry Morton Stanley : (1841-1904), meanwhile, was : trying to follow the uncharted Lualaba River in the Congo to mouthpiece campaigns. PORFIRIO DIAZ (1830-1915) Mexican general, politician, and president, Porfirio Diaz was of mixed European and indigenous descent. From a humble background, he made a name for himself in the military. After he was elected president, he shored up his support and created a political machine that kept him in power and the opposition divided and suppressed, leaving him to control politics in Mexico for more than 30 years. establish which river it joined. Stanley's African exploits were already famous; he had been previously sent by a US newspaper to find fellow explorer David Livingstone {see 1855) and in 1871, on the shores of Lake Tanganyika, he had supposedly uttered the celebrated words, “Doctor Livingstone, | presume?” IN CHINA, FAMINE SPREAD through the northern provinces. A drought the previous year affecting the Yellow River —a vital source of water—was compounded by a lack of rain in 1877 and the arrival of locusts. When the rains returned toward the end of the following year, some 9 to 13 million people had died in a region of 108 million. In South Africa, the discovery of gold (see 1871) had exacerbated tensions between the Boer settlers and the British, who by this point governed much of the country. By 1877 the British managed to annex the Transvaal. However, the Afrikaners rebelled against this move and regained their independence a few years later (see 1881). Le Petit Journal ——= iMlustré —— [SF Famine in China An illustration in a French magazine shows the state of poverty during the famine years in China, when millions died in the northern region. Vasily Vereshchagin’s Mass for the Dead (The Defeated] shows the aftermath of a Russian defeat during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. RUSSIA DECIDED TO ONCE AGAIN DECLARE WAR on the Ottoman Empire on April 24, 1877, in an attempt to aid the Serbians in their fight against the Ottomans (see 1875). Russia was aided by SY s This oil painting shows the defense of Rorke’s Drift on January 22, where a handful of British soldiers faced an attack by of 4,000 Zulu soldiers. IN SOUTH AMERICA, PERU, BOLIVIA, AND CHILE began a dispute over who had control over the Atacama Desert region, running along the Peru-Chile border. In the previous decade the 139 British forces Romania (the united Moldavia and valuable mineral sodium nitrate oeceeeee Wallachia]. The Russo-Turkish had been discovered there. DRIFT War of 1877-78 included a Initially Chilean companies went five-month siege of the Ottoman into the desert to extract the i Bulgarian town of Plevna, which mineral and issues over territorial | eventually fell to Russian forces. control soon arose. Chile and 1 Russia also managed to take Bolivia at first agreed that the British Zulu some key fortresses and a truce 24th parallel was their boundary. casualties casualties was called. A settlement was But Bolivia, dissatisfied with the i Ps e : Battle of Rorke’s Drift reached on March 3, 1878, known as the Treaty of San Stefano, which gave Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro their independence, while Bulgaria was granted some autonomy and put under Russian authority. However, European powers were | not satisfied with this settlement as there were many competing interests. Prussia backed Great Britain's desire to curb Russian expansion into Bulgaria—which : at this point reached the Aegean Sea—by refusing to let Russia © extend naval power in the : Mediterranean. Austria-Hungary wanted to continue occupation of : Bosnia and Herzegovina to keep its regional influence intact and Afghan fighters A photograph of Afghan soldiers holding hand-crafted rifles, at Jalalabad, Afghanistan, during the second Anglo-Afghan conflict. was ignited when British agents learned of negotiations between Afghan leader Sher Ali Khan (1825-79] and Russia. This was deal, entered into a secret agreement with Peru to defend its | these were put to little effective use, : and superior British firepower won : out despite overwhelming numbers. interests in the desert. Bolivia later seized the property of Chilean companies, prompting Chile’s president to send in troops. Chile formally declared war on Bolivia and Peru on April 5. The war of the Pacific took place on land and sea, and was not resolved until 1883, with Chile keeping control of the mineral- rich Antofagasta region. Although the Zulus had some rifles, | (1826-84), who organized some : 60,000 warriors. The British © established a depot at Rorke's © Drift, which was later attacked © by Zulus after their victory in : Isandlwana. The Zulus were : successfully repelled after 550 warriors were shot by the handful ae 40,000 * stem growing Slav nationalism. compounded by Sher Ali's refusal In South Africa, British forces : of British troops stationed at the a casualties Meanwhile, Britain had signed to receive a British delegation. In came up against the Zulu nation —_;_ depot. After seven months of 2 1504 : the Cyprus Convention with November 1878, British forces in the Anglo-Zulu War. The © conflict, the British managed Pa : Turkey. This deal would allow invaded the region. Sher Ali British wanted to expand into Zulu : a final victory over the Zulus in 2 : British administration of the turned to Russia for support, but territory, but this was met with _ the Battle of Ulundi on July 4, S 100-4 island while it remained under was told to make peace with resistance by King Cetshwayo : and took control of their territory. = 30,000 Ottoman sovereignty. This allowed = Britain. Sher Ali died the next year 8 50 casualties : Britain to establish a presence and his son, Mohammad Yaqub 9 : anda naval base in the eastern Khan (1849-1923], signed a treaty | Sunken ship in part of the Mediterranean, with the : ceding the Khyber Pass to the War of the Pacific oe aim of blocking further Russian British. Soon after, a British envoy | This scene from Turks Russians : incursions into the region. was murdered and British troops the Battle of . i Away from the European returned to take Kabul. Yaqub was Iquique, during the Siege of Plevna War of the Pacific, Although the Russians eventually overcame the Turks, the small Turkish force heroically held up the Russian advance into Bulgaria. diplomatic bargaining table, the British were once again caught up : in warfare with Afghans. The » Second Afghan War (to 1880) forced to flee. He was succeeded by Abdur Rahman Khan (c. 1844- 1901), who ended the conflict and supported British interests. shows Chilean and Peruvian ships. The dispute also included Bolivia. e RS a 3} & at 8 Py oF 0? 9% es oo ak yo vk HF e® =< 0% Se \ a oS Rito yo" Re Ra om yee gee ere Ce wear” sor owe tat ao? ot! Fs? eS 2 QO od od ek Se ae Rie oe 50" oe eo Ro NS & eo g & 9 es S 7 Ra) co $ os oe a os s £ s poe sree ee ony oe a0, OF oO ot Fo PP Bk ys Oe) 2 on? 2 Ss FI ec? Gh caer 6g 2 Keg OP” EP re 0? ROS ape 6870S ets em goo Wao oar y® RO ee? are ce Se S w oF (age 3 oF Nm tea o™ oye" ae ge Nae oe Pes ooh sy 2 Kea Vora oF Ke Os) Ss Oe og ar s oe Te Fao yo C © cs . we AS ree a. 44 THE DOOR THAT NOBODY ELSE WILL GO IN AT, SEEMS ALWAYS TO SWING OPEN WIDELY FOR ME. 99 West Indian laborers cutting a channel during the first—and failed—attempt Clara Barton was the founder of the to construct a canal in Panama connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. BUOYED BY THE SUCCESS OF THE SUEZ CANAL (see 1869), Ferdinand de Lesseps [see 1859) began to draw up plans for a waterway connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans through the isthmus of Panama. However, the project got off to a difficult start the following year in 1881. There were disagreements over the canals plans, the machinery did not function well in the terrain, and many workers died of disease © in the tropical heat. Meanwhile, the development of commercial refrigeration began to alter the relationship between consumers and producers. Cheese and meats could now be exported long distances. On February 2, the first shipment of frozen meat to survive the journey intact arrived in London from Australia. The following years saw : 1,150,000 2,370,000 i a boom in shipments of meats IN SOUTH AFRICA, TENSIONS Tunisia became a French Germany US and other agricultural goods BETWEEN BOER SETTLERS (see protectorate. French military 740,000 7,010,000 | from Australia, New Zealand, panel, above] and the British over { occupied the territory anda Russia Britain 840,000 France Shipping tonnage 1881 This chart shows total goods shipped by country in vessels over 100 tons. Refrigeration sparked a rise in food transport and the use of vast ships. THE BOERS The Boers (“farmers” in Dutch) in South Africa were settlers of Dutch, French Huguenot, and German descent that left the Cape Province in search of autonomy farther north. They spoke Afrikaans, a language that evolved from Dutch, The earliest settlers arrived in the Cape of Good Hope after the Dutch East India Company established a port in 1652. The Boers had a strong ethnic identity and clashed often with the Zulus and the British. and Argentina to Europe. Around the same time, the : problem of creating a safe means | of artificial light was solved by = the US inventor Thomas Edison : (1847-1931). He had perfected existing designs on lightbulbs | of the day (see pp.298-99) by : preventing them from overheating : and making them much safer to : use. Almost as soon as he had : patented the design, lighting systems began to spring up on the streets, in businesses and : hotels, and in homes. the annexation of the Transvaal (see 1877] had tipped into violence. Boers had established the South African Republic in the Transvaal area and begun to use arms to support their claim, starting the First Anglo-Boer War in 1880. British troops suffered a defeat at the hands of the Boer settlers in the battle at Majuba Hill on February 27, 1881, bringing the dispute to an end by March. The Convention of Pretoria treaty granted the South African Republic independence over its affairs, although Britain was allowed to maintain an unclear © country, including Kiev, that “suzerainty” over it. This did little to rectify the situation, and the simmering resentment between the British and Boers would erupt again before the end of the century [see 1899). France, meanwhile, was attempting to extend its influence in North Africa. With Algeria under its control, it looked to the neighboring Ottoman territory of Tunisia. The past 50 years had seen Tunisian rulers caught in between Ottoman demands and European creditors, especially after the government went bankrupt in 1869, after which a : British, French, and Italian financial commission was imposed on the territory. France decided to send in 36,000 troops in 1881, under the pretext that Tunisians had been moving into : Algerian territory. Under the Treaty of Bardo that same year, French minister was installed to liaise with the Tunisian bey (ruler), who now only had limited control. In Russia, there was an outbreak of anti-Jewish violence culminating in pogroms in the south of the continued until 1884. This was triggered by the assassination of the reformist Alexander II (1818-81) who was killed by a group known as People’s WiLL. False rumors circulated that : Jewish people were responsible and that the government was American Red Cross organization. : going to instruct the public to take : their revenge on Jews. The violent © attacks caused many Jewish © people to emigrate to Western : Europe, the US, and Palestine. In the US, teacher and nurse Clara Barton (1821-1912) i organized the American Red | Cross, a part of the growing 1 International Red Cross relief organization that had been : founded in 1863. Meanwhile, in New Mexico, _ sheriff Pat Garrett (1850-1908) _ captured one of the United States’ most notorious outlaws, Billy the : Kid (c. 1859-81) on April 30. Born : William H. Bonney Jr, Billy the Kid became an infamous gunfighter, » and was rumored to have killed at least 27 men by the age of 21. ' After his arrest he was jailed and : sentenced to death, but he escaped : until Garrett tracked him down © and shot him dead on July 14. Garrett's gun A replica of the holster that held Pat Garrett's gun around the time he captured Billy the Kid. 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BFP AD Pe oe A aS FW He gh 09 a a MG y? har 8 Se pF poh sO PE 2” ¢ Or oo ph SEA a er ic Rien 9 ook? son e e. 3 9 90% Cor oir f ror & Ra Deri ST we oe OP" ge A as BP oP Ve os s ‘ Puerto Rico - eVirgin Islands PP Jamaica « BAIT 7-0 @ St. Martin i rd Isl BRITISH HONDURAS West *-/:7 = coor lslends . , Mexico . ——¢ Guadeloupe zg HONDURAS /ndies <— ¢ Martinique = 2 So aS GUATEMALA Curacao ¢) ¢ Barbados = @ SS eaRaae ‘ ‘2S — ¢ Windward Islands w & ay y * Trinidad and Tobago 5 2 S c 2 a NICARAGUA », VENEZUELA BRITISH GUIANA iS) & 0 Oe COSTA RICA «g # < 9, z 3 Fs | Galapagos .~ AD GUANA 7 5 fi} Islands ¥* « 3 Aragon So © = ECUADOR : “i irg S = a io Basin o z re - Fa a PACIFIC © Peper ~_ Belgium = é de So ACRE Expansion Colonial minority BRITISH AFRICAN TERRITORIES OCEAN P ae Following the example of Britain Native Spaniards were in the Making tracks Lima % and the Netherlands, the small minority in the Spanish colon, By 1914, the vast expanse of colonial British @ state of Belgium exploited the New Spain [Mexico and Central Africa was spanned by thousands of miles of vast territory of the Congo, which America). In 1810, they made up just railroad track, opening the region up to trade ee was 76 times larger than Belgium. under a fifth of the total population. _and aiding communication between territories. Riededanero Ml ee Paulo «gill Imperial land ue Imperial population By 1910, Britain was well ahead in PORTUGAL the imperial r with an empire fez} BELGIUM 4 covering m ‘han twice as much of al GERMANY i itain govern ubj the globe as its closest rival, France. the Americas, Asia, and Aus RANE BRITAIN yntingou 18 15 12 a 6 50 100 150 200 250 300 SIZE OF EMPIRE (MILLION SQ MILES) COLONIAL POPULATION (IN MILLIONS) = aed oo? e f THE IMPERIAL WORLD 1700 In the 18th century, European expansion, with 1800 A century later, Spain, France, and Britain had 1850 By the middle of the 19th century, the world map the exception of Spanish Central and South America, taken control of almost all of the Americas. The had been reconfigured with the independence of Latin was mostly confined to port cities. Huge swaths of British had also made a series of incursions into America. British and French attention had turned to the world were under the control of the older Otto: India, as the Mughal Empire broke down, while also the resource-rich lands of Africa, while the Dutch and Qing empires in the East. undertaking exploration into Africa. continued to expand into Southeast Asia. Greenland 1900 At the turn of the 20th century, European OR colonialism had reached “sagan UN? it RUSSIAN EMP ‘ across the globe.The ~ 3 “Scramble for Africa” in the 1880s saw the major powers jostling for territory Ny i Berl POLAND and taking land from e » a, GERMAN |. — AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE , Africans. The US gained 0) © repre EMPIRE ROMANIA . gov! territories in the Caribbean Paris ws Be as Vienna Budapest a € oer ‘ and Southeast Asia. ANCE SERBIA Siem e ort Arthur . Se BULGARIA % QING aa | ARAN PORTUGAL pedal Rome. : u Nonlpd fadeira® ritish occupi é PEDAL BHUTAN >. , 2 Cara ¥ , | a . PACIFIC Canary | IENI& ze °. ae Islandse’++ * gaff % prromay © BAHRAIN ia s * OCEAN eS 2, ; spreiven RIO DE ORO Ss Nt ’ % eS TRUCIALSS 5 ; Macao, ey Hong Kong shy = ii) cutir ose nd ema? Arahian is . R ‘Guangzhouwan, ~ Cape Verde FRENCH B i 4 : r @ ss Ietendis WEST AFRICA im Peninsula & i % ‘. o; i . , > Yanaon t A | ‘ French in terms of 1899 ° \ i. x Franco-British agreement. |ADHRAMAUT cm ¢ Peek SIAM mnbochiNa exuel Be French control in part notional sacar \ L Madras g! = ean PHILIPPINE : " PORTUGUESE eure: ‘eanes Anne Mahté ® ae ! sein) : eae abe SOMALILAND \ reer * ae BRITISH : : SIERRAEEONE (ycevion NORTH BORNEO fe AAS ABYSSINIA < ITALIAN Ld IMIS SOMALILAND Moy SARAWAK 4 ' + Maldive Islands < So FREE NTATE Z >> BRITISH Qe oe nominally EAST AFRICA independent \GERMAN under Belgian irs control Lachica (eeeaeee Rane sociales Chagos Islands i BRITISH . * Ascension eee PR CENTRAL Amante islands BAROTSELAND- 9) RHO AFRICA Cocos Islands e NORTHWESTERN : «+ Comoro Islands - ie RHODESIA é 3 eee: * Island SOUTHE! St. Helena @ - GERMAN RHODES SOUTHWEST AFRICA WALVIS BAY. to Cape Col i Acolored engraving depicts the massacre of Sioux Indians at Wounded Knee iu Creek, South Dakota, by US soldiers of the 7th Cavalry Regiment. IN THE US, TENSIONS AND SPORADIC FIGHTING in the west between US troops and American Indians had continued since the Battle at Little Bighorn (see 1876). © : and the US Army, although : poor relations persisted : between the two groups. In addition to this, American Indians faced increasingly harsh living conditions: poverty, disease, and crop failures were rife. By the 1880s, anew mysticism called the | Ghost Dance had emerged among the Sioux people, based on the belief that an Indian messiah would come in 1891 and unite all the displaced native peoples. This newfound belief manifested in trances, dances, and a mass frenzy, which worried the US agents who oversaw the reservations. They attempted to stop the dances, and the Sioux people rebelled, with US army troops being called in by the end of the year. The reservation of Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota was the scene of a massacre on December 29, when around 150 American Indians—men, women, and children—were killed and 50 were wounded by US troops. During disarmament of the Sioux tribe a scuffle had broken out, and in the ensuing carnage around 25 Wounded Knee dead & Ls The massacre left 150 = Sioux dead, while 25 troops from the US army were killed. A further 50 Sioux were wounded during the conflict. i many due to friendly fire from 1 US machine guns. This was : territory of Schleswig- : had formally come into : British possession in : 1814, having been : seized by the Royal earlier. However, as . and African expansion : continued, a deal was : struck for Britain : to hand over the » island to Germany in _ and Pemba, near | Tanzania's port of : African coast. Germany | to Britain’s substantial » territory in Africa, - building on earlier : deals struck with : Germany, as well as : the Berlin Conference : year, Britain formally : established the Protectorate. This became known as the “British Central Africa Protectorate” in 1893 and was then officially designated as “Nyasaland” in 1907. Part of this territory lay along Lake Nyasa and the Shire valley in present- day Malawi). US soldiers were also left dead, the last major conflict between American Indians off the North Sea coast of Germany, near the Holstein, Heligoland, Sioux weapon A 19th-century style knife and beaded rawhide sheath, as carried by American Indian Sioux warriors. 5 f 5. . In Europe, a small island f ¥ y 3 Ls Navy seven years Germany's European exchange for the islands of Zanzibar uw D) of 20. Tanga off the East developed Heligoland into a large naval base. Zanzibar was added MMU... iil. claims made following (see 1885]. In the following Nyasaland Districts The Trans-Siberian Railway during its construction in Russia. THE DISTANCE BETWEEN MOSCOW AND VLADIVOSTOK ON THE TRANS- SIBERIAN RAILWAY IN RUSSIA, CONSTRUCTION HAD BEGUN ON AN EXTENSIVE RAILROAD SYSTEM across its vast territory. The project was the idea of Alexander III [1845-94], and it was known as the Trans-Siberian Railway. |t stretched from Moscow to the port of Vladivostok, 5,715 miles [9,198km) to the east. Russia received permission from China to run tracks through parts of Manchuria, allowing the completion of a trans-Manchurian line by 1901. The work began from west and east ends and eventually met in the center. By 1904, the sections linking Moscow and Vladivostok were connected and running. The railroad facilitated the quicker movement of people through Russia and allowed for the further settlement of sparsely populated Siberia. - Sie vg a : Xe The Great Mosque of Djenne, Mali, was built after the French took control. y) NCAISE OCCIDENTALE French in Africa A postage stamp from French West Africa shows an illustration of a native mask. France managed to gain control of much of the region. BRITAIN AND FRANCE WERE CONTINUING THEIR PUSH into West Africa. The British had secured ports along the coast, annexing Lagos in 1861. Lagos provided a key point from which to seize control of surrounding Yorubaland, situated around the lower parts of the Niger River, corresponding with much of modern southwest Nigeria. The British took advantage of existing internal divisions among Yoruba rulers, and in 1892, they overthrew the Ijebu government, part of the Yoruba political system. Likewise, the French exploited divisions in the Muslim Tukulor Empire by signing treaties with its neighbors and building forts within Tukulor territory. By 1892, the French controlled much of the region around the Senegal River. s ) e o eo > ev < xr i : N es us, oF sis ge) Xt oS ro) RK tae ee pF ss _ os! yr oe?'8 soe Se WS it Foe K® @” Aer ge” of Fae se CONN ae oo OX oH? 65 ' Od Ne en NS W 2 eee Ne £27 wot 0 Tow yee wt or v8 sero Fag oe ee SS Fo eS oO o sg Col ae oe we 0% 98 BF oe Hoe oe oe Foe roe” e ss o yr oe ie Q' ono Kr ee ce SN aw” oh we eos WO" =f o we & eo Soe is o wes a ‘oe ww joa : ra s e ; Ron - 2 et ae" ae VN ge R s) oe oS J YP og Sy a Ses Sore oe ce OP Qe Rar o 62 s . oor ony aoe, ys? WE 9 MO sr ge? Kaw aoe PP gOS tor poe ES Pe OC ae KK e ern of s 2" < a er C SY yee PP a Og EN Po oP Or co iS Be PF ox Met HaHa HE gk FF Po? oe) Qa aah of ne orc 0" zs Saas Po PONS ww Cae 6 eu? ye oe os we oe oo oe ae we oe 2 er ote yo we S 07 0” oe ID 7 20° so PW a? oF BAD oe e 326 ALTHOUGH FRANCE HAD MADE GAINS IN THE WEST AFRICAN INTERIOR, the coastal territories around the kingdom of Dahomey (present-day Benin) had proven had handed over to France the coastal city of Cotonou in Dahomey without consulting the Dahomeans. The result was the First Franco-Dahomean War (1889-90), which concluded with a treaty that ceded Cotonou and Porto Novo to France in exchange for payments to the king of Dahomey. However, tensions remained, and by 1892 another war had begun, this time over the issue of slavery. The king, Behanzin (1844-1906), was still allowing slave raids, despite the abolition of slavery. In addition, he attacked a French gunboat. France retaliated, this time with troops, and they overpowered the control in 1893. 44 ALL THAT SEPARATES ... RACE, CLASS, CREED, OR SEX, IS INHUMAN, AND MUST BE OVERCOME. 99 Kate Sheppard, suffragist, in the pamphlet Is it Right?, 1892 difficult to subdue. In 1889, Britain an army of French and Senegalese kingdom, bringing it under French 25,000 Jamaica 1,000,000 Cuba Sugar production in tons In 1893, Cuba, then the dominant : world sugar grower, produced 1 million tons of sugar, four times i as muchas Jamaica. Halfway around the world, in : the British colony of New Zealand, women won the right to vote. The push for women’s suffrage was : gaining momentum in many places, but these islands were the first to grant the right, after formidable efforts by suffragists : and tireless campaigners, such as Kate Sheppard (1847-1934). | Shortly after this act was passed, there was a general election in : which 65 percent of women cast their votes. Meanwhile, Cuba was experiencing a sugar boom, with profits of $64 million in 1893. However, a US tariff the following : year would cause profits to drop to $13 million by 1896. Ruler of Dahomey A painting of Behanzin, king of Dahomey (modern Benin], shows him holding symbols of kingship while surrounded by attendants. rom 0 xd IN RUSSIA, AFTER THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER III, Nicholas I! (1868-1918) became the next, and last, emperor of Russia. He presided over an increasingly troubled country, and would not be able to withstand the social revolution that engulfed Russia in the early 20th century. Russia's neighbor, China, had become entangled in a local conflict in Korea that escalated into the Sino-Japanese War. The confrontation had started over an internal revolt in Korea. The monarch asked both nations for help, and both sent troops. Yet they also refused to leave once the rebellion was suppressed. Japan was allied with the modernizing government in Korea, while China backed the royal family. Tensions between China and Japan mounted and An engraving showing the coronation ceremony of Emperor Nicholas Il and the Empress Alexandra, who would be Russia’s last ruling monarchs. 46 1AM NOT YET READY TO BE CZAR. | KNOW NOTHING OF THE BUSINESS OF RULING. 99 Czar Nicholas II, on becoming ruler of Russia, 1894 conflict broke out, with Japan declaring war on China on August 1. In the Ottoman Empire, the Christian Armenian people were also caught up in the nationalist spirit of the time, and they tried to assert their independence. However, their efforts met with a particularly brutal suppression, ordered by Sultan Abdul Hamid II (1842-1918). This saw systematic massacres of Armenian people : throughout the empire, resulting _ in the collapse of the independence : movement a few years later. : The death toll has been estimated : to be around 250,000 Armenians © killed out of a population of £ 2 million, between 1894 and 1897. : Sino-Japanese War : A painting of the Sino-Japanese War : shows the Japanese forces : conquering Jiuliancheng after : defeating the Chinese at Pyongyang. Sot er Pe oF 2 BS 8 “a Boy, 8 5 oe ee sd hg a? Be oe eco Leh ot NN yeh Moo ae: oP? oe ack Oe Pack wr een po a oe we ashok a yee ee © Ss & e pr oe og! Ss we ot <0 od eg BK Wo" © Ss 44 EVERY DAY SEES HUMANITY MORE VICTORIOUS IN THE 7 STRUGGLE WITH SPACE AND TIME. 99 ib Guglielmo Marconi, Italian inventor TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS WERE PROLIFERATING RAPIDLY all over the world. In Italy, physicist and inventor Guglielmo Marconi (1874- 1937] invented a wireless telegraph. In his initial experiments, using a telegraph key to operate a transmitter, he was able to send electromagnetic waves in bursts that corresponded to Morse code. He then used a transmitter to ring a bell that had been placed 30ft [9m] away. He worked on the receiving antennae | » Réntgen (1845-1923) had been : experimenting with electric and by the end of the year he could transmit a signal 1.5 miles (2.5km). However, he found little enthusiasm for his work, so he went to Britain, where he patented Early X-ray One of the first X-ray photographs made by German professor Wilhelm Conrad Réntgen (1845-1923) captured a woman's hand with rings. Marconi’s wireless The wireless telegraph (replica : shown] developed by Guglielmo Marconi paved the way for the : development of radio technology. : the device the following year, and laid the foundation for radio technology. Meanwhile, German physicist Wilhelm Conrad currents and cathode-ray tubes. | The outcome was a type of radiation that allowed objects to appear transparent on photographic plates. Rontgen called this X-radiation, an early version of the madern X-ray. In Korea, the clash between Japanese and Chinese forces [see 1894) came to an end after the : Chinese defeat in Pyongyang, and subsequent naval victories by the Japanese fleet. China sued | for peace on February 12 and the © resulting Treaty of Shimonoseki, which had involved Russian, : French, and German intervention, forced China to give up the island of Formosa (modern Taiwan) to Japan, as well as the nearby Pescadores (Penghu) Islands. © China also had to recognize Korean independence, open ' more ports to Japanese trade, and pay a large indemnity. This scene from the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1896 shows the Abyssinian forces routing the Italian troops. GREECE SAW THE MODERN REBIRTH OF THE ANCIENT OLYMPIC GAMES, which was organized by an enthusiastic Frenchman, Baron Pierre de Coubertin. In 1890, he met William Penny Brookes, who had orchestrated a British Olympic Games in 1866. Coubertin and Brookes wanted to create an international festival of modern sport. After years of campaigning, Coubertin was finally able to organize the event in Athens from April 6-15. It was an enormous success—almost 300 contestants competed in track and field, gymnastics, tennis, swimming, cycling, fencing, shooting, weightlifting, and wrestling, while 40,000 spectators cheered them on. However, Brookes did not live to be present at the games, having died the previous year. Meanwhile, Italy was trying to extend its reach in Africa with an invasion of the Abyssinian Empire (modern Ethiopia). Its previous attempt to annex the kingdom had ended in failure by 1889 (see 1872). Under the terms of the Treaty of Uccialli, Italy thought it had the right to establish a protectorate over Abyssinia, but this was contested. By 1895, the 1896 OLYMPIC GAMES THE NUMBER OF EVENTS THE NUMBER OF COUNTRIES THE NUMBER OF ATHLETES 74 Quarrel of the English Speaking Peoples Olympic revival The cover illustration for the April edition of Scribner's Magazine celebrated the revival of the Olympic Games, being held in Athens, Greece. There were 43 events, in nine different sports. disagreement between Italy and Abyssinian emperor Menelik II {1844-1913} had turned into an armed conflict. The turning point was the Battle of Adwa on March 1, 1896, at which 80,000 Abyssinians defeated 20,000 Italian soldiers. - THE NUMBER OF ITALIANS KILLED AT ADWA ALTHOUGH THE TEN YEARS’ WAR HAD BEEN UNSUCCESSFUL (see 1868], many Cubans were unwilling to accept continued control by Spain. Leading the renewed cries for independence was the Cuban Revolutionary Party. It declared a republic in eastern Cuba and began a guerilla war, known as the Cuban War of Independence. Soldiers managed to reach Havana by the following = year, although they were driven back. The US would end up getting involved when the battleship Maine was blown up in the Havana harbor (see 1898). Trouble was brewing between Greece and the Ottoman Empire over the situation in Crete. There had been a brutal suppression of a Christian uprising on the island the year before, and Greece was determined to annex the territory. However, the Thirty Days’ War did not have the outcome Greece desired. When an armistice was agreed in August, it was forced to pay an indemnity and it lost part of the territory of Thessaly. The Turks withdrew their troops from Crete and the island was made an international protectorate. COAL (MILLIONS OF TONS) 1865 1897 Acartoon entitled “The concert of nations,” in an 1897 edition of Le Petit Journal, satirizes the Thirty Days’ War, also known as the Greco-Turkish War. JOSE MARTI (1853-95) Awriter, philosopher, journalist, and political theorist, José Marti became a key figure in the Cuban revolutionary struggle. He is considered a national hero for his planning and leadership during the Cuban War of Independence. He died on the battlefield at Dos Rios, in the east of the island. Meanwhile, Britain was undergoing a remarkable boom in coal mining, The level of coal production had doubled since the 1860s. The mining industry was also a major employer— in 1897 the number of miners in Britain was around 695,200, rising from about 216,200 in 1851. Coal mining in Britain By 1897, Britain was the world leader in coal production. Its output of 200 million tons put it ahead of the US and Germany, who were also large coal producers. WITH THE DESTRUCTION OF THE USS Maine—blown up while docked in Havana’s harbor— the US made the decision to go to war against Spain. Cuba’s struggle for independence had already attracted much support in the US. The government blamed the Maine incident—in which 260 crew members were killed—on Spain. Although Cuba and Spain had agreed an armistice on April 9, the US began the Spanish-American War only a few weeks later, on April 25. Battles were fought in two theaters: the Atlantic and the Pacific. US Navy ships sailed into Manila Bay, in the Spanish Philippines, while another fleet made incursions into the southern harbor of Cuba, Santiago, where troops then disembarked. By July 25, Spain had capitulated. It would pay a steep price for what the US Secretary of State John Hay (1838-1905) called “a splendid little war” in a letter to his friend and future US president Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919), who had led the First Volunteer Cavalry (known as the “Rough Riders”). Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of December 10, Spain had to give up its remaining colonies, allowing Cuba its independence and ceding Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the US. However, the US continued to occupy Cuba, and the following year tried to exclude Cubans from governing, and disbanded the army. Around the same time the US also managed to annex the islands of Hawaii. Four soldiers raise their rifles over the brush of San Juan Hill, Cuba, as they fight from trenches during the Spanish-American war. Hawaii annexed In a contemporary illustration, Hawaiians in Honolulu receive news of their annexation by the US. The US would also take control of Guam and the Philippines. Meanwhile, in Egypt, Britain and France became embroiled in the Fashoda Incident, which involved territorial disputes over their respective attempts at expansion in Africa. The British wanted to build a railroad linking Egypt and Uganda while France wanted to continue its eastward drive into the Sudan. Although their troops met in Fashoda on September 18, the situation did not escalate into war, as all sides wanted to avoid battle. Instead they decided that British, French, and Egyptian flags should fly over the fort that the French had occupied. Eventually, they agreed that their boundaries would be marked by where the Nile and Congo rivers divided. Cyclists of the Lancashire Fusiliers took part in the South African War. HOSTILITIES BETWEEN THE BOERS AND BRITISH were once again heading toward conflict. They had already clashed in the First Boer War (see 1880). This time Boers were demanding that British troops protecting mining interests should withdraw from the Transvaal, but this request was ignored. So the South African Republic and the Orange Free State declared war on Britain in October. The South African War would last less than three years but, for the British, it would become the largest since the Napoleonic Wars, as its forces reached some 500,000 men. The war was fought across a hostile terrain, which the Boers—whose troops numbered less than 90,000—could use to their advantage. The war became infamous because of the treatment of Boer civilians, who saw their farms burned and women and children put into camps where up to 25,000 died. War medal The Queen's South Africa Medal, awarded to military personnel who served in the war, is engraved with a Jubilee bust of Queen Victoria. WS se s so Ss ese OO gh yo? vt Cage) we? 20 cor ae aw oe on Cae WE oO CM oh Bog or War pric eo Pe a erst eo THE GROWING PRESENCE OF WESTERNERS—especially Christian missionaries—in China was starting to cause public the Boxer Rebellion, which was a peasant uprising that aimed to eject all foreigners from China. The group behind the attacks had earlier founded a secret society known as the “Righteous and Harmonious Fists,” hence the sobriquet “Boxer.” Members of the group were also found among the Qing court, and so the movement's violent attacks on foreigners and Chinese converts to Christianity were officially sanctioned. An international relief force of 2,100 troops from Britain, France, Italy, Germany, Russia, Japan, and the US was eventually sent to the port of Tianjin in June 1900, but the Boxers This illustration shows the storming of Beijing by the international force that arrived to fight the anti-Western attacks during the Boxer uprising. : continued to burn down churches : and kill Christians. After the international troops seized : several forts, the empress anger. This eventually erupted into = : ordered all foreigners to be killed, : and many foreign ministers were : murdered. After the arrival of | reinforcements, the international dowager Tz’u Hsi (1835-1908) force made its way to Beijing, which it captured. The empress : dowager fled, and a truce was : negotiated with the imperial : princes in September 1901. This | put an end to the violence and © provided for reparations to be made. While these events were taking place, the Russians took » the opportunity to occupy i southern Manchuria, which : bordered southern Russia. In Africa, mining began in » Katanga, a southern region of the : present-day Democratic Republic | of the Congo. The discovery of rich | : Gold Coast region continued | throughout the following decade : as Africans continued to resist : British rule. copper deposits—as well as other minerals, including zinc, | cobalt, and tin—led to the rapid j establishment by Europeans of : mining infrastructure, such as : railroad lines, and towns began to spring up in this region. As mining companies proliferated, Katanga was soon one of the most highly Going underground A Metro sign built into a lamp- post in Paris, France. The first underground train line was opened in Paris in 1900. | Growing nation : Thanks to decades of immigration, | the population of the US had | soared, reaching more than 75 million by 1900. : of the Congo, but the many : Africans employed performed : the dirty and dangerous work : in the mines for very little pay. : British troops faced a rebellion » by the Asante, which took eight | decades of immigration had - caused the country’s population » to nearly double. There were » around 35.5 million people living © in the US in 1870, and by 1900 : that number had reached more : than 75 million. Much of this : growth had been in urban industrialized areas i population were living in cities | rather than settling in rural + communities. Prince Saud Ibn Abdul-Aziz, the first monarch of the madern Saudi state. Queen Victoria's funeral procession makes its way through London. THE MANY COLONIES THAT HAD BEEN FOUNDED IN AUSTRALIA— Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania—ushered in a new era on January 1, after the drafting THE SOUTH AFRICAN, OR ANGLO- BOER, WAR between Boer settlers and the British ended on May 31. The end of the war was hastened when the British adopted a “scorched earth” policy, which involved destroying crops and MILLIONS 20 and approval of the constitution livestock to limit Boer supplies. 10 and official establishment of the The dispossessed Boer women 0 Commonwealth of Australia. and children were rounded up into 1800 1850 1900 A few weeks later, Great Britain concentration camps. Under the and its colonies mourned the loss of Queen Victoria, who died on January 22. She had ruled the nation and empire for 63 years, making her reign the longest by a British monarch. Her son, Edward VII (1841-1910), took the throne, and the largely peaceful— though very socially stratified— period under his rule was known as the Edwardian era. Treaty of Vereeniging, the Boers were forced to recognize British sovereignty in South Africa, ending the independence of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic. The whole territory was now under British control. Meanwhile, Ibn Saud (c. 1880- 1953) recaptured the Saud dynasty’s formal capital of Riyadh, after decades of civil war (see 1843). In 1901, Saud, who was living in Kuwait, set out to take back the territory he had been forced to leave by the rival Rashids. He and his men reached Riyadh in January 1902 and crept into town, waiting to ambush the Rashidi governor the following morning. Soon Saud had taken the city and the territory, with the help of a growing number of supporters. This became the kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, and it remains under the Saud family’s rule to the present day. On the Caribbean island of Martinique, the violent eruption of Mount Pelée killed around 30,000 people and destroyed the port of Saint-Pierre on May 8. The volcano had previously erupted in 1792 and 1851, but on nowhere near the scale of the 1902 eruption. Meanwhile, in West Africa, months to subdue. Unrest in the Across the Atlantic, in the US, areas—some 40 percent of the Commonwealth stamp This stamp showing Queen Victoria is from Australia, which brought its colonies into a federation the same year the monarch died. S Mel WA ee wv : SGehor < OK “ Oy ook oe roo oS eo ot ae NN of ‘oo SS Ny oy os ‘ox oye CHE) ee sF ep st Sys ye oom we S fh fed) ad acl A (1867-1912) AND ORVILLE (1871- 1948) WRIGHT, became obsessed with the growing science of aviation and were determined to fly. They pumped the profits from their bicycle shop into their experiments and built a biplane. In the town of Kitty Hawk, on the coast of North Carolina, they the morning of December 17, their work paid off when Orville first successful flight in an airplane that the pilot had to earlier attempts with gliders). He traveled 197 ft (60 m] in 12 seconds. Later that day Wilbur flew 850 ft (259 m) in 59 seconds. Farther south, in Panama, the US had resurrected the idea of building a canal between the Atlantic and Pacific, the first attempt at which had failed more 12 SECONDS OF THE WRIGHT BROTHERS’ FIRST FLIGHT The original 1903 airplane designed by Wilbur and Orville Wright makes its first flight on December 17, 1903 in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. TWO BROTHERS IN THE US, WILBUR: began to conduct experiments. On = made what is considered tobe the ; complete control over {as opposed = THE DURATION | : its jurisdiction until 1979, and : work on the canal began. : than a decade before (see 1889). : The US wanted to purchase the : assets of the former French holding company and begin ? construction, but talks with the Colombian government (which still. controlled the isthmus) broke © down. Soon after, in 1903, Panama, | with the backing of the US, | declared its independence. By © 1904, Panama and the US had agreed on the terms of the : Panama Canal Zone, in which the US would be permitted to exercise In France, cyclist Henri » Desgrange (1865-1940) organized » arace that would become one of | the most prestigious in the world: the Tour de France. Its roots, Lion in the path The United States publication Judge depicts the Panama Canal as the “lion in the path” in this political cartoon. however, were intertwined with the infamous. Dreyfus Affair. This was a scandal involving Alfred Dreyfus (1859- 1935), a French officer who was accused of treason. Evidence came to light that cleared Dreyfus, but it was suppressed, Dreyfus was Jewish, and France became divided over the issue of anti-Semitism. During the scandal, the sports newspaper Le Vélo supported Dreyfus. Angry advertisers decided to set up a rival periodical, LAuto-Vélo, later called L’Auto. Cycling promoter Desgrange was hired as editor. However, LAuto’s sales were initially poor, and soa race was organized to promote it. Desgrange devised a month-long cycling contest (though it was later shortened] which followed the route of Paris—Lyon- Marseille-Toulouse-Bordeaux- Nantes-Paris. On July 1, 60 competitors set off. The event's first winner was Maurice Garin. JAPAN AND RUSSIA HAD BEEN COMPETING to expand their influence in Manchuria and Korea. Russia had built its Trans-Siberian railroad (see 1891), which now had a line running into Manchuria, annexed during the Boxer crisis in Japan had begun to build up its army and navy, and approached Russia in 1903 to suggest they recognize each other's mutual interests in these regions. The talks broke down on February 6, 1904, and three days later Japan two of them and triggering the Russo-Japanese War. Japan then sent troops into Manchuria and Korea, forcing the Russians farther north over the course of Russo-Japanese War This map shows the course of the conflict in which a victorious Japan drove Russia out of Manchuria, forcing Russia to give up its expansionist policy in East Asia. Port Arthur Aug 1904- Jan 1905 - SJ Mie pe an Tsushima wounded were transported on skis during the Russo-Japanese war. attacked Russian warships, sinking : : where the Khoikhoi people had © risen up in 1903, followed by the : Hereroin 1904. Many Africans were rounded up and put into i concentration camps, where : the work conditions were so dire £ that more than half of the prisoners : died. By the time Germany had i suppressed the rebellion, in 1908, : about 80 percent of the Herero © and 50 percent of the Khoikhoi : peoples had been killed, either in : the year. A peace deal was : brokered by US President | Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919), © and on September 5 a treaty was : signed that forced Russia to leave » Manchuria, cede part of the island - of Sakhalin to Japan, and recognize China (see 1900). During this time, : as grant fishing rights off the coast : of Siberia. Japan's victory against : Russia marked its emergence as : a major world power. Japan's interests in Korea, as well In Africa, German troops were i facing rebellions in their colonies. : Revolts broke out in German South West Africa (Namibia), the course of the conflict or while interned in the camps. KEY © Japan # Qing China i to Russia 1897, to Japan 1905 area leased to Japan 1895 —» Japanese advances 1904-05 route of Russian Baltic fleet % Japanese victory, with date 1750-1913 THE AGE OF REVOLUTION After thousands of years of slow transportation using ships, horses, or even traveling on foot, the development of the automobile revolutionized the way the world thought about distance and speed. Instead of spending days ona trip, people and goods could move hundreds of miles in a matter of hours. Although the late 19th century witnessed many significant technological innovations in the realm of transportation, such as the development of steamships, none would come close to having the widespread and immediate impact of the development and mass production of the car. Although automobile ownership was at first only the preserve of the wealthy, the US inventor Henry Ford was able to increase output and push down Rolling off the assembly line Workers on the assembly line at the Ford Motor Company assemble a Model T. Ford's innovative factories allowed the company to assemble millions of cars very quickly. prices, so that by the 1920s many eager consumers could buy a car. This had a profound effect on the landscape as highways sprang up, and by the 1950s, suburbs in the US were planned around the idea that residents would be driving. THE AGE OF THE AUTOMOBILE Despite the subsequent problems—especially pollution and traffic jams—the love affair with the car has never ceased. Indeed, as people in developing countries become richer, they too want to be car owners. Now the challenge is to find more fuel-efficient and environmentally friendly ways to power cars, and more manufacturers are experimenting with other forms, such as hybrids (see panel, right]. However, in spite of these issues, the automobile continues to be an integral part of transportation networks all over the world. Ford Model T Automobile engineers have long been trying to find ways to run cars on other fuels than gasoline, including solar power and battery power. Hybrid cars combine a fuel engine with a battery engine, giving the driver better fuel consumption and producing less pollution. 44 ANY CUSTOMER CAN HAVE A CAR PAINTED ANY COLOR THAT HE WANTS SO LONG AS IT’S BLACK. 99 Henry Ford, US industrialist, My Life and Work, 1922 15th century Leonardo da Vinci's car The Renaissance Italian designs the world’s first self-propelled wagon. Reconstructed da Vinci car 1769-70 The first true automobile The French engineer Nicolas Cugnot builds a steam-powered vehicle that can reach speeds of up to 2mph (3 kph). Cugnot’s Faradier Trevithick’s road locomotive 1801 The steam-powered car Richard Trevithick, a British inventor, creates a smaller, lighter version of the steam engine and calls it the “road locomotive.” 1860 The coal-gas engine Belgian Jean-Joseph Etienne Lenoir invents a two-stroke internal- combustion engine fired by coal gas. Lenoir gas engine 1867-77 The four-stroke Otto engine The German inventor Nikolaus August Otto patents his four- stroke internal- combusion engine. Otto engine Benz three- 1885 wheeler Internal combustion improves The Germans Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler separately develop practical cars with internal- combustion engines. THE STORY OF THE CAR brass-framed 1913 Ford Model T windscreen with Henry Ford's design classic has many _— two panels of the features found in today's cars. a As well as being relatively cheap, it was sufficiently robust and reliable to withstand the rough roads of the US at the time. brass wing — mirror brass struts support windshield open-bodied model had no doors brass horn with rubber squeeze bulb kerosene-powered acetylene-powered sidelight headlight solid rubber 1g es, tire _ shock absorber__~ starting handle _ wooden wheel 1930s 1885-86 1903-30 Volkswagen's The four-wheeled car The Ford Model T “compact car” Gottlieb Daimler The US car manufacturer Henry Developed in makes improvements Ford begins production of the Germany, the to the engine and adds mass-market Model T. By 1927, “people's car” a fourth wheel to the some 15 million cars have been marks the rise body, producing the produced, thanks to Ford's of the affordable, first modern car. moving assembly lines. fuel-efficient car. Volkswagen Beetle 1889-90 1890s-early 1900s 1940s-50s 1997-present Front-mounted engines Early electric cars The rise of the luxury car Hybrid cars René Panhard and Emile Not all cars are Brands such as Rolls Car makers look for cleaner, Levassor of France are developed with gasoline f Smee Ew Royce and Cadillac cheaper ways to fuel cars. the first to build entire engines. Some 28 » —— . become bywords for F cars for sale and to put percent were using J a", the most luxurious Toyota Prius the engine at the front. electricity by 1900. q” ihe 9) { cars for sale. A ries £ Rolls Royce Silver Dawn 44 THE ETERNAL MYSTERY OF THE WORLD IS ITS COMPREHENSIBILITY. 7 i i Albert Einstein, in the Franklin Institute Journal, March 1936 German-born Albert Einstein became one of the world’s most ola scientists after the development of his Special Theory of Relativity. IN RUSSIA, DISCONTENT WITHTHE = equation E=mc?. In 1921 he would : province of Bengal, joining CZAR, NICHOLAS Il, had been : receive a Nobel Prize for his i East Bengal and Assam, with a growing, and there were calls for a : scientific contributions. constitutional monarchy. This was In India, the British viceroy Lord : attacked as an attempt to stifle compounded by the humiliating » Curzon (1859-1925) was facing : the nationalist movement, defeat in the Russo-Japanese _ increased nationalist opposition. which had strong support War (see 1904). Protests spread = He decided to partition the : throughout Bengal. around the country. In February, Nicholas promised to set up an elected assembly, but this did nothing to stop the unrest. Finally, the military joined in, and June saw a mutiny by the crew of the battleship Potemkin. By October, Nicholas promised a constitution and an elected legislature, but this © was insufficient for the protesters, : who organized themselves into soviets (revolutionary councils). One of the leaders, Leon Trotsky (1879-1940), was jailed. Although the protests continued, anti- revolutionary forces finally suppressed what became known as the Russian Revolution of 1905. The following year, Nicholas implemented reforms, the Fundamental Laws, which included the creation of an elected legislature, or Duma. In Switzerland, the German physicist Albert Einstein (1879-1955) had received his doctorate and international acclaim for his publications. The most influential was known as the Special Theory of Relativity, which explained the relationship between mass and energy in the Film poster The film Battleship Potemkin 1905 mutiny of the ship's crew. : capital in Dhaka. This move was 7 BR (1925), made by the Russian director i ™ Sergei Eisenstein, dramatized the | ea Life for Romanian peasants was harsh and many wanted land reform. The ruins of the San Francisco City Hall after the 1906 earthquake. PEASANT UNREST THAT HAD BEEN SPREADING throughout the countryside in Romania culminated in a revolt in 1907. This was fueled by land issues, as the peasants were forced into exploitative contracts, meaning many farmers had to live in poverty. As the rioting spread through villages, up to 10,000 people were killed before it was suppressed by the military. In Southeast Asia, Cambodia had clawed back some of its western provinces from Thailand due to French pressure. By 1863, France had established a strong presence in Cambodia, eventually restricting the Cambodian king's powers and installing a governor. This paved the way for colonization by the French, but angered Cambodian nationalists. The resistance was quelled by 1907. SAN FRANSISCO EARTHQUAKE BUILDINGS DESTROYED SITUATED ON ONE OF THE WORLD'S MOST ACTIVE FAULT LINES—the San Andreas, which runs for 810 miles (1,300km)—the city of San Francisco is susceptible to earthquakes. By 1906, people in the growing city were used to the earth moving—there had been recorded quakes in 1836, 1865, 1868, and 1892—but nothing had been done to make the city of 400,000 people better prepared. On April 18, San Francisco bore the brunt of what was later estimated to be a 7.8 magnitude earthquake, while people as far afield as Los Angeles and Nevada also felt shaking. The quake lasted less than a minute, but it wreaked damage that would take years to repair, as buildings collapsed and many caught fire throughout the city. In India, the All India Muslim League was established—initially with the support of the British government—with the aim of protecting the rights of Muslims. Some 3,000 delegates attended its first meeting on December 30. By 1913 it had joined the growing call for self-rule in India. The French in Thailand A 19th-century French gunboat, armed with a Hotchkiss Cannon, patrols the waters of the Chao Phraya River in Bangkok, Thailand. eS An engraving in the Italian newspaper La Domenica del Corriere, from February 1908, depicts the assassination of Charles |, king of Portugal. He was murdered during a period of increased calls for a republican government. PORTUGAL WAS CONVULSED BY REVOLUTION following the assassination of its king, Charles I (1863-1908), in February. Already a highly unpopular monarch, he made matters worse by deciding to appoint his own prime minister —bypassing parliament in the process. Events took a violent turn = : estimated 20-30 million in 1884 = to around 8.5 million by 1911. on February 1 when Charles and his eldest son, Luis Filipe, were shot while they were traveling in a carriage in Lisbon. Charles was succeeded by his son, Manuel Il (1889-1932), who managed to survive on the throne for just a couple of years before being overthrown (see 1910). In Africa, the Congo Free State (see 1884] was abolished and Belgium's government established the Belgian Congo. The Free State had been run bya private company with Belgian King Leopold II (1835-1909) ruling over it personally. Africans working in the Free State provided : the company with valuable rubber and ivory. However, reports of the appalling labor conditions led to an international KEY © The Kingdom of Hungary © The Austrian Empire Bosnia-Herzegovina Border of Austria-Hungary The Austro-Hungarian Empire In 1908, Austria-Hungary was eager to assert its control over the Balkan states of Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to prevent the Ottoman Empire from taking the territory. : outcry and calls for reforms. : Belgium's answer to these | demands was to make the © territory an official colony and > rule it from Brussels, ensuring | the continued supply of Congolese : products. But the brutal : conditions persisted, and the population dropped from an Meanwhile, Austria-Hungary » also reconfigured its colonial i relationships—in its case with | Bosnia-Herzegovina, which it : had already occupied (see 1878). : It had become worried about the : implications of the Young Turk ? Revolution underway in the : neighboring Ottoman Empire (see © 1909). Austria-Hungary was : concerned that its power in the * Balkans might be undermined : because, technically, Bosnia- : Herzegovina was still under GERMAN EMPIRE Muniche Ottoman suzerainty and one of the Young Turks’ aims was to reclaim the territory. After securing Russia’s support, Austria- Hungary annexed Bosnia- Herzegovina. This move immediately angered nearby Serbia, which called for a section of Bosnia—Herzegovina that would give it access to the Adriatic Sea. Russia was soon caught in the middle of what would later be known as the Bosnian Crisis. At first it sought to secure some concessions for Serbia, but it later bowed to the demands of Austria-Hungary and its allies. During this period, Bulgaria’s Prince Ferdinand (see 1887)— whose role as leader was not yet recognized by Russia and many other European countries—took advantage of the crisis to proclaim Bulgarian independence from the faltering Ottoman empire. RUSSIAN EMPIRE ROMANIA Bucharest @ Sarajevo 2 SERBIA Mostar BULGARIA BODY WILL TURN TO DUST, BUT THE TURKISH REPUBLIC WILL STAND FOREVER. 99 Mustafa Kemel Ataturk, first president of Turkey, 1926 Sultan Mehmed V The 35th Ottoman sultan, Mehmed V (1844-1918), was effectively a puppet for the Young Turks’ Committee of Union and Progress. FOLLOWING THE SUCCESSFUL REBELLION BY THE YOUNG TURKS the previous year, in 1909 the Committee of Union and Progress—the group's political wing—had taken control of the levers of power within the Ottoman Empire—something they would maintain for the next couple of years, despite internal disputes. The Young Turks had wanted to force the sultan to restore the constitution, and once this was accomplished Abdul Hamid Il (r. 1876-1909) ruled as a constitutional monarch, although only briefly—he was deposed on April 27. They then proceeded to make his brother, Mehmed V (r. 1909-1918}, the new sultan. Many of the Young Turks had been students and members of the Ottoman intelligentsia and they organized themselves while living in Europe and British- : controlled Egypt. Although they were initially seen as “liberal,” » many of their policies were considered repressive, especially elsewhere in the empire. Much of : the anger lay in the Young Turks’ : nationalism, which meant they : wanted to push a Turkish identity : at the expense of the many large © ethnic groups throughout the © Ottoman world, such as the Arabs : and Slavs. However, they did » implement some progressive reforms, such as secularizing : the legal system and improving : education, including allowing = women better access to schooling. They also wanted © to limit the amount of foreign influence throughout the i empire in areas such as : Bosnia—Herzegovina (see 1908). MUSTAFA KEMEL ATATURK (1881-1938) Having been involved with the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, Mustafa Ataturk led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence. When the Republic of Turkey was established in 1923 he became its first president. Emiliano Zapata was one of the leaders involved in the fight to oust Porfirio Diaz from office and put in place a revolutionary government led by Franscisco Madero. Zapata was instrumental in organizing guerrilla troops. ACENTURY AFTER ITS FIRST REVOLUTION (see 1810}, Mexico was once again caught up in the throes of political change. Liberal reformers had begun to resent Porfirio Diaz's political machine (see 1876] and the Regeneration movement was formed. Members of the group were often jailed, and the publication of their newspaper was suppressed. In 1906, they published a manifesto calling for a one-term presidency and reforms to land—the return of land confisicated by the Diaz regime to its rightful owners—and education. Diaz eventually allowed the development of an opposition, and other groups emerged. However, Diaz jailed one popular presidential candidate, Francisco Madero [1873-1913], on the eve of | the 1910 election, reneging on his promise for fair elections. Madero escaped to Texas and began to organize an uprising for November 20, the anniversary of the previous Mexican revolution. It was nota large rebellion, but involved small towns being attacked by pockets of guerrilla groups, which the army was able to suppress. However, by the following year, the revolutionary militias—many of them peasant farmers—led by Francisco “Pancho” Villa (1877-1932] and Emiliano Zapata (1879-1919), stepped up their attacks against the army. Diaz surrendered his office under the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez, and by November 1911 Madero was installed as president. However, he now came in for attacks from the right and » the left as groups splintered from | the revolutionary movement. This : political fighting spilled over © into violence, with warfare : continuing for decades. In East Asia, China invaded : Tibet once again, trying to assert : its claim to rule the territory. : This invasion came after British attempts to occupy Lhasa in : 1904, which were fueled by fears : that Tibet could fall under the : influence of Russia. This was : followed bya 1907 treaty between : China and Britain that recognized : China's sovereignty over Tibet. | Tibet did not consider it valid, : and the Tibetans were able to : use the revolution that began | in China the following year (see : 1911) as an opportunity to drive out the Chinese. For nearby Korea, the consequences of the Russo-Japanese war (see 1904) had severe ramifications. It had allowed Japan to use the peninsula for military operations and in the resulting Treaty of Portsmouth, in 1905, Korea was made a Japanese protectorate, and by 1910 had been officially annexed. Casa Mila Designed by the Catalan architect Antoni Gaudi (1852-1956), Barcelona's iconic Casa Mila was constructed between 1905 and 1910. Imperial officials flee from Tientsin during the Chinese Revolution, which precipitated the end of the Qing dynasty, rulers of China since the 1600s. THE NUMBER OF DIAMONDS IN GEORGE V’S CROWN EVENTS IN CHINA TOOKA DRAMATIC TURN AS THE QING DYNASTY—which had been in power for more than 260 years— faced a rebellion. Despite its longevity, many Chinese always considered the ruling Manchus as foreigners. They were also resentful at the growing number of Westerners, who had been permitted to move inland from the port cities. The 20th century had been full of unrest for China (see 1900) and this continued to grow as revolutionary groups began to form around the country. In October, a revolutionary plot was uncovered and the members arrested and executed. Soldiers in : Wuchang who knew of the plot decided to push forward with a revolt; they led a mutiny on October 10, which soon spread throughout the country, and the rebels declared Chinaa republic. They were met with little resistance because many officials accepted that the Sun Yat-sen The cover of the magazine Je sais tout shows a picture of Sun Yat-sen, president of the Chinese Republic. Manchus’ days were numbered. : Inthe US, exiled revolutionary © leader Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925) : had heard about the events in : China and returned home. He was : elected provisional president of : the country, although prime > minister Yuan Shikai (1859-1916) | had been given full power by the | imperial court. The two struck a deal, although Yuan would try to : make himself emperor in 1915; : his efforts ended in failure three = months before he died in 1916. Meanwhile, in India, the British were trying to display their © colonial might with an enormous : durbar, or assembly, in Delhi. | This was to mark the visit of King George V and Queen : Mary. During the visit, the king | announced that the colonial : capital would be moved from : Calcutta to Delhi. Around the : same time, the unpopular policy of partition in Bengal was ended (see 1905), and the territory was i reunited. Over the following years, sais towt WORLD PRICE OF RUBBER ($/TON) 1840 1870 1911 Rubber boom Technological innovations, especially the tires used on the increasingly popular motorcar, fueled a rise in the use—and price—of rubber. a new part of Delhi was built, with a monumental Viceroy’s house and government buildings designed by the leading British architect Edwin Lutyens (1869-1944). However, such displays did little to quell the growing nationalist sentiment. In Europe, Marie Curie (1867-1934), a Polish-born French scientist, won her second Nobel Prize, this time in chemistry for her work on radioactivity. She and her husband, Pierre (1859-1906), had been the recipients of the 1903 Nobel Prize for Physics. In 1911, the world price of rubber was beginning to soar, fueled by its use in new technologies, especially in the production of automobile tires. Rubber came from the sap of trees that grew in the forests of Brazil, Southeast Asia, and West Africa. An illustration of General Lyautey, the French governor of Morocco. THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE FACED FURTHER UPHEAVAL with the First Balkan War. The conflict ended with the Turks losing Albania, which became independent, and Macedonia, which was to be shared among the Balkan allies (see 1913). In March 1912, Morocco was established as a French protectorate under the Treaty of Fez. The year before the new sultan Abd al-Hafiz (c.1875-1937), besieged in his palace, had asked the French to help him suppress internal dissent. ] Partial Suffrage & WOMEN’S RIGHT TO VOTE A photograph captures the moment when suffragist campaigner Emily Davison is trampled by George V's horse at Epsom on Derby Day. THE TREATY OF LONDON OF 1913 OFFICIALLY SIGNALED THE END of the First Balkan War. However, the Balkan League—Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece—that had challenged the Ottoman Empire soon began to disintegrate. Bulgaria attacked Serbia in June because of a disagreement over the division of Macedonia, although the fighting ended a couple of months later with a Serbian— Greek alliance. Greece and Serbia would receive most of Macedonia with Bulgaria only receiving a small part. This internal division opened a vacuum for the Turks. The Young Turk government in charge of the Ottoman Empire was not satisfied with the outcome of the Treaty of London and it mounted another invasion, this time recapturing Adrianople (modern Edirne] on July 20. However, by this point it had lost almost all of its Balkan territory. In Britain, the suffragist battle to give women the right to vote [see panel, left] took a violent turn as campaigner Emily Davison (1872-1913] threw herself in front of King George V's horse during the Epsom Derby in June. The horse, Anmer, struck Davison’s chest and she was knocked down and remained unconscious for four days, until she died of her injuries on June 8. It remains unclear if her intention was to commit suicide. A public funeral was held for her in London on 14 June. By 1913, Henry Ford (1863- 1947), the head of the US Ford Motor Company, which he set up in 1903, had sold nearly 250,000 J an OM ey : Coup d’etat An illustration from Le Petit Journal : depicts the murder of Nazim Pasha, : Ottoman minister of war, during the : First Balkan War. moving assembly lines that he had installed in his Michigan factory. This improvement meant : that a completed chassis (car © body) could be made in just over : an hour and a half, while his competitors took hours longer. PRESIDENTIAL os ee ee oF eo PO ye we Fake Waa ARN Rha CO es) SF ae 0? WF nr ee os 9% sh oh a FS Pe gO Gea? Fo or 0% wy ge < Ew ek Cte Re 5 ack Le is * eae oo ot ae ok EO gah eho Veer yo 0708 ei Coma ¢ DF Wok “ wh | Sw Fe oe oe Core © St ee @ @ noe oi of oe % é wr ey Sa o x” ce 0 OF ne OS ak po 9s <3 ee COR aes aot Rite Rosy <8 oo OP < Fe oh yo Re see 0% oh sc! co oh nc ON so si oe wena ye ohice Pe grr ce” ao oo e' Bok S) shy KF 0% oe oo oS Ss o> ef CE OF aS (> 2" oO . FF oF 9 Mae” we G ys oe foo? eg pr eo ye EOS os se! oo oe a cS 5 x = w & os oo 3h ae ot Zo @ . WO’ ee e ee eo ‘S AS i) of eo HO onto e Woe Ba ae a eo Reus oF 05 yeti oat “ . vs “s a 4 TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS 1914-2011 Technological progress brought the wonders of space flight and the internet, but radical projects to transform society failed. Despite two World Wars, the human population quadrupled, creating new economic and environmental challenges. Young German men cheer as they march down Pariser Platz in Berlin. Many Germans reacted enthusiastically to being called up for war. : EARLY IN THE YEAR, ATTENTION : WAS FOCUSED ON CENTRAL © AMERICA. In January, the first ship : completed its passage through | the Panama Canal. This amazing | feat of American engineering cost : around $300 million to construct : and claimed the lives of around i 4,000 workers. In April, the US intervened in | Mexico's civil war by sending a : force of Marines to occupy the : port of Veracruz, which prevented : President Victoriano Huerta from : receiving arms shipments from : Germany. The US held the port for six months, contributing to : Huerta’s fall from power in July. Meanwhile, Europe began its H descent into war. World War I | was sparked by the assassination i of Archduke Franz Ferdinand © (1863-1914), heir to the Austro- : Hungarian throne, and his wife : Sophie. They were shot on June 28 : during an official visit to Sarajevo : in Austrian-ruled Bosnia. The fatal | shots were fired by 19-year-old : Bosnian Serb, Gavrilo Princip. : The Austrian government : blamed Serbia for the © assassinations. Assured of : Germany's full support by Kaiser : Wilhelm Il [1859-1941], on July 23 : the Austrians sent an ultimatum © to Serbia. Its demands were intended to be so humiliating that : Serbia would reject them, giving : the Austrians a pretext for military Raising the Stars and Stripes American soldiers raise the flag over the Mexican port of Veracruz. The occupation cost 17 American lives and lasted for six months. Belgium | 0.1 Serbia la] 0.4 Britain | 0.7 Austria ti] 11 Germany 3.8 COUNTRIES 0 2 4 8 10 12 14 TROOPS [IN MILLIONS] action. Although the Serbians were prepared to make concessions, Austria-Hungary declared war on July 28. In its army in support of Serbia. Within a week, all the major European powers were at war. Brushing aside last-minute peace initiatives by Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm and Russia’s Czar Nicholas II (1868-1918), German military chiefs insisted that Germany declare war on Russia. Since their military plans demanded a swift victory in the west as a prelude to defeating Russia in the east, Germany also declared war on France. Germany did not want to fight the British, but in order to invade France they needed to send an army through Belgium, whose neutrality was guaranteed by Britain. On August 4, after German troops had crossed the Belgian frontier, Britain declared war on Germany. Although many people privately : Army sizes at the outbreak of war Russia's army was huge, but it was : poorly equipped and badly organized. : Britain had a relatively small army, : and depended on its navy for defense. response, Russia began mobilizing = regarded the onset of war : with dismay, it was greeted » by cheering crowds. The © traditionally antimilitarist and : internationalist German Social : Democrat Party rallied to the war effort, convinced Germany had to defend itself against : Russian conquest. In France, most previously antimilitarist radicals and socialists adhered » to the union sacrée (sacred : union}, which called for a political truce with prowar parties and vetoed any strike action. In : the UK, Ulster Protestant : paramilitaries, who had been : on the verge of an armed rebellion against the British : government's plans for Irish » Home Rule, and their Catholic ' opponents, the Irish Volunteers, volunteered en masse for the » British Army. British men line up outside the recruitment office in Southwark Town Hall, London. Thousands of men from all sections of society volunteered for army service. In continental Europe, millions of men were called up and dispatched by train to the frontiers, while a much smaller force of British regular soldiers was sent to France as the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). Lord Kitchener (1850-1916), the British secretary for war, launched a drive to recruit volunteers. The response was overwhelming, with three-quarters of a million British men enlisted by the end of September. Most people expected a short war with high casualties, and at first this expectation seemed justified. German troops surged into Belgium, adopting an official policy of “Schrecklichkeit” (frightfulness}. They committed atrocities against the Belgian population—in the worst incident 674 civilians were massacred at Dinant—and laid waste the historic city of Louvain, burning its famous university library. The BEF experienced its first action at Mons. Unable to resist the German onslaught, the British and French were driven back toward Paris. Meanwhile, the NETHERLANDS “* Aptwerp f= 4 LUXEMBOURG —— Verdun Paris® FRANCE KEY ~~» German advance (Aug 2-Sept 5) The Allies [and allied states) Germany Neutral states GERMANY 46 THE PLUNGE OF CIVILIZATION INTO THIS ABYSS OF BLOOD AND DARKNESS... IS TOO TRAGIC FOR ANY WORDS. 99 Henry James, American author, August 4, 1914 THE TOTAL NUMBER OF BRITISH, FRENCH, | AND GERMAN CASUALTIES AT THE FIRST BATTLE OF YPRES JOIN YOUR COUNTRY’S ARMY! GOD SAVE THE KING was forced to retreat, their hopes of a swift victory in ruins. On the Eastern Front the Recruitment poster The German war plan, devised in 1906 by then chief of staff Count Alfred von Schlieffen, assumed that, if attacked on two fronts, France would concentrate its forces along its eastern border. The bulk of the German army was to advance through Belgium and Luxembourg, encircling the French armies. The aim was to defeat the French in six weeks, before the Russians could enter the fray. | French launched their own offensive along the eastern French-German border, but they : suffered heavy losses for no gain. By the beginning of September : the situation was desperate for the British and French armies. The Germans were also forced to change their tactics, abandoning their plan to advance to the west of Paris, and instead marching to the east of the city. French army commander General Joseph Joffre (1852-1931) launched a counteroffensive at the Marne, while troops from Paris—some of whom were carried to the front in buses and taxis—attacked the German flank. The German army Refugees flee Belgium Roads in Belgium were lined with refugees like these, carrying whatever possessions they could, and fleeing from the advancing German army. Russians mobilized more quickly than Germany had anticipated, but as they advanced into East Prussia the Russian First and Second Armies were crushed at the Battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. The victorious German General Paul von Hindenburg [1837-1934] and his chief of staff General Erich Ludendorff [1883-1918] became national heroes. On the Western Front, from September through to November, a series of battles were fought northward into Flanders (see pp.467-47). They culminated in the encounters known collectively as the First Battle of Ypres. With neither side able to inflicta decisive = blow, the armies dug trenches along a line that was to remain broadly unchanged for three years. Meanwhile, the war was widening into a global conflict. Ottoman Turkey joined in on the side of Germany, declaring a jihad (Muslim holy war] against the British War Secretary Lord Kitchener's face adorned recruitment posters that called : for volunteers to join up and fight. : British Empire. British troops © from India landed in Turkish-ruled Iraq and seized Basra, while Japan joined the Allies and fought © for control of the German concession in China. In Africa, : British troops invaded German » East Africa and South African forces attacked German Southwest Africa—they also put down a revolt by the Boers, who : had sided with the Germans. At Christmas, widespread fraternization between opposing troops along the Western Front : appalled generals, who feared their men would lose the will to fight, but the war continued. 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NOKe oS s oF ete Oi of wre gee 6 e oe Ry eee Sere Ror a Pie Ss = ue ; zi ee wee 5 of s ‘ of FT we eee PPO oe? 5 po HF™ gh? gad™ oy een A vot oS RLS LP OF ph re pec af eo oO oP 5H oh yo a ¥ ? of a ee Ot g PF et ge? xs ed gd oR xe WF gO eh oh as Sor an ot a se" PON Se” ae es ee See oe : oS oF oe 2% oe eS we ww roo oF aro oe se of 982 c 9K Cane SS é WE om oh os AO so ow 2 a s 343 é 1914-2011 | THE GREAT WAR TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS World War I (Aug 1914-Nov 1918) was also known as the Great War. Although it was a global conflict, the focus was Europe, where the Central Powers— Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey—fought an alliance led by France, Britain, and Russia. The US entered the war on the Anglo-French side in 1917. From the outset, the decisive arena of conflict was Germany's Western Front. The Germans invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg, overcoming Belgian resistance at Liege and Antwerp. French and British forces were driven into retreat southward after clashes at Mons and Charleroi. At the Marne, however, French commander General Joseph Joffre rallied his forces for a counter- offensive and the Germans were pushed back. After a desperate struggle at Ypres in the fall of 1914, the rival armies dug into trenches that stretched from the North Sea to Switzerland. Massive resources were committed to offensives— AWAR ON ALL FRONTS On the Eastern Front, Germany and Austria-Hungary faced the forces of the Russian Empire. From the battle of Tannenberg in August 1914, the German Army established an ascendancy over the Russians, but the Austro-Hungarians enjoyed no such superiority, suffering defeat in the Russian Brusilov offensive in 1916. Revolution in Russia in 1917 led to the country’s exit from the war, anda humiliating peace treaty with Germany signed at Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. The entry of the Turkish Ottoman Empire into the war as an ally of Germany in the fall of 1914 spread the conflict to the Middle East. An Anglo- French bid to attack the Turkish capital, Constantinople, failed dismally at Gallipoli. Bulgaria also joined the Central Powers, helping to crush Serbia in 1915 and Romania the following year. Allied troops based at Salonica in northern Greece from 1915 remained largely passive until the final months of the war, when their advance northward in September 1918 helped deliver a decisive blow to the collapsing Central Powers. THE EASTERN FRONT Fought mostly in East Prussia, Poland, and Galicia, the war between Russia and the Central Powers brought Russia to political and military collapse. Peace terms enabled Germany to occupy Russian territory. by the Germans at Verdun and by the Western Allies at the Somme—without breaking the stalemate. Up to 1918, only a voluntary withdrawal by the Germans to the fortified Hindenburg Line significantly changed the position of the armies. From March 1918 a series of large-scale German offensives broke through Allied defenses and advanced the front line toward Paris. But, aided by the arrival of US troops, the Allies halted the Germans at the Marne. A successful British offensive at Amiens in August initiated the “Hundred Days," a series of advances that pushed the fighting back close to the German border. FINLAND RUSSIAN EMPIRE # Smolensk b Minsk Tannenberg Masurian Aug 23-30, 1914 Lakes Sep 9-14,1914 GERMANY ° o—_} Brest- Warsaw POLAND Litovsk GALICIA Gorlice May 2-10, 1915 » Budapest % Odessa AUSTRIA-HUNGARY S % 3. grade ROMANIA SERBIA Black Sea Front line 1914-15 (limit of Russian advance) —— Limit of Austro-German advance 1915-16 ~-» Brusilov offensive 1916 > Armistice line Dec 1917 — German penetration into Russia by 1918 “Major battle BRITAIN ae Londons ¢ ? The Western Front Millions of troops were compressed into a restricted ? area of northeastern France and Eng lish western Belgium. It was here that Channel most of the largest and bloodiest battles of the war were fought. Front line 1914-1916 Hindenburg Line Front line Mar 1918 Furthest extent of German advance 1918 Armistice Nov 1918 Major battle AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Uy Bucharest # Sarajevo Wy Sofia * BULGARIA Adriatic Sea Gallipoli Apr 25, 1915- Jan 9, 1916. Salonica ALBANIA GREECE THE BALKANS Serbia KEY resisted attacks by «+ Salonican front Sep 1918 Austria-Hungary, but was. auctrian, German, and la h ery once Seay Bulgarian advance 1915 and Bulgaria joined in. ; The Allies landed troops Be eure cee Lee => Allied offensive Sep 1918. at Salonica and Gallipoli, and many retreating Serbs joined the Allies at Salonica. > Romanian offensive Aug-Sep 1916 North Sea Ostend ' _-Passchendaele*® Jul 31-Nov 6, 1917) —/ Antwerp Sept 28-Oct 10,1914 Calais Ypres Oct 19-Nov 22 ® Brussels Lys Apr 9-29, 1918 BELGIUM Jun 7-14, 1915 Mone @ Namur ‘ Aug 23,1914 & x Arras ry A Apr 9-May 16, 1917 * Charleroi x Aug 21, 1914 Somme F . Jul 1-Nov 18, 1916 Cambrai ‘ Nov 20-Dec 7, 1917 . s Amien: “*, Aug 8-11, 191 . ‘ : Sed . meee" s __ Chemin des Dames . Apr 16-May 9, 1917 . o, —Rheims ‘ “ny * “x, ~at- x Argonne Chateau-Thierry Sep 26- Jul 18, 1918 First Marne Sep 5-12, 1914 Second Marne Jul 15-Aug 6, 1918 Paris@ FRANCE RUSSIAN EMPIRE SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Nov 11, 1918 * St Mihiel NETHERLANDS ina = 2 = > = z = <= fs] = 2 5 Mae © & x Liege Aug 4-16, 1914 LUXEMBOURG Verdun Feb 21-Dec 18, 1916 *». Sep 12-19, 1918 Caporetto * Bolzano 1917 Vittorio Veneto Oct 24 -Nov 3, "0 River Piave _~, Jun 15-23, 1918 Trento 11 battles of the Isonzo Jun 1918-Sep 1917 * Verona Constantinople, Venice, Adriatic Sea OTTOMAN EMPIRE THE ITALIAN FRONT An ally of Germany and Austria-Hungary before the war, Italy remained neutral in 1914, and the following year entered the conflict on the side of Britain and France. A series of ineffective Italian offensives on the mountainous border with Austria at the Isonzo River were followed by headlong retreat after a crushing defeat at the battle of Caporetto. With British and French reinforcements, the Italians held firm at the River Piave in summer 1918. » Central Powers advance Sep 1916 Jan 1917 Major battle » Italian advance ~ Austro-German advance Allied offensive - Front line Dec 1917-Oct 1918 Major battle Front line Sep 1917 Oct 24 -Nov 19 s COST IN US DOLLARS (BILLIONS) 5,000 4,000 3,000 0 France Britain Germany Italy US COUNTRIES War in the skies KEY Military aviation expanded Mi massively through the war. In 1918 August 1914, around 500 aircraft were deployed by all combatants combined. By the end of the war some 12,000 military aircraft were in action at the front. 6% 4% Other combat- Poison related deaths gas 10% 60% Rifle fire _ Artillery 20% Machine gun fire War casualties The total military death toll in World War I was around 9.7 million. Germany suffered the heaviest loss at over 2 million, followed by Russia (1.8 million), and France (1.4 million). SWITZERLAND The cost of war The huge financial cost of the war became a major issue in the postwar period, when Britain and France sought reparations payments from Germany to pay debts owed by them to the US. MAJOR COUNTRIES INVOLVED IN THE WAR AYEAR OF BATTLES OF UNPRECEDENTED SCALE opened with a German offensive against the French city of Verdunin February (see pp.344-45). German commander-in-chief Erich © von Falkenhayn (1861-1922) aimed to “bleed the French army white” by drawing it into costly combat. The French reacted as he had hoped by sending reinforcements, decimated by the German heavy guns. German losses also mounted up, as French resistance stiffened under the inspirational leadership of General Philippe Pétain (1856-1975). Repeated German offensives continued until mid-July, after which French counteroffensives succeeded into December. Little territory changed : hands and both sides suffered around 400,000 casualties. Meanwhile, the US was fighting awar ona quite different scale. This Irish Republican barricade was set up across Townsend Street in Dublin during the Easter Rising to delay the advance of British troops fighting to retake the city. : In March, Mexican general Pancho Villa (1878-1923), the flamboyant leader of one of the : revolutionary armies engaged in Mexico's ongoing civil war, made a cross-border raid into the US. His attack on Columbus, New : Mexico, was rebuffed by the US Cavalry. The provocation was too © great for the US to ignore, and : President Woodrow Wilson © (1856-1924) ordered General John Pershing (1860-1948) to lead an expedition into Mexico. Around 5,000 US troops fought engagements with both Villa supporters and Mexican : government forces before : withdrawing in January 1917. Britain suffered a military disaster in the spring in Mesopotamia (Iraq), then part of the Turkish Ottoman Empire. The © area had been occupied by British © forces from India. From December | 1915, Anglo-Indian troops had been under siege by Turkish forces at Kut-al-Amara, between Basra and Baghdad. Relief forces failed to fight their way through to Kut, so, facing starvation, they were : forced to surrender. Taken prisoner, the British and Indian soldiers endured terrible hardship, less than half surviving captivity. Bandit leader Originally a bandit chief, Pancho Villa became a key figure in the Mexican Revolution and Mexico's clash with the US in 1916. : wappen, or © German helmet Prussian helmet plate, \ : The German spiked Pickelhaube : helmet was replaced in the course of 1916 by the metal Stahlhelm, which : provided better protection. This disaster was offset by the : Arab revolt against Turkish : rule. Encouraged by Britain, » Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca © (1854-1931), launched an uprising » in June. Arab forces defeated the Turkish garrisons of Mecca, : Medina, and other towns in the Hejaz, and Hussein proclaimed himself Sultan of the Arabs. The British sent T.E. Lawrence (1888-1935), a junior officer : in Cairo, to act as adviser to : Hussein's son Feisal, the most "active leader of the revolt. : Between them, Lawrence and : Feisal organized an effective i military force. They used guerrilla tactics to push for the liberation of : Arabs throughout the Turkish- : ruled Middle East. In April, Britain faced a revolt against its rule in Ireland. The Irish Republican Brotherhood sought German support for a nationalist uprising, but Germany's attempt to supply rifles to the rebels was intercepted by the British. Republicans still went ahead with the uprising on Easter Monday, occupying key buildings in Dublin, and proclaiming a Provisional Government of the Irish Republic. The British sent troops to Dublin, and after five days of fighting the rebels surrendered. Fifteen republican leaders were executed : after a secret trial by a British military court. Although few Irish had supported the rebellion, the executions stimulated a wave of pro-Republican sentiment At the end of May, the German High Seas Fleet and the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet met in the Battle of Jutland in the North Sea. The British spotted a sortie : Russia’s most successful offensive of World War |, almost : destroying the Austrian army in Galicia. The Austrians were only : rescued by the arrival of German : troops to support them. Brusilov’s | initial success was based on : subtle tactics—surprise and the "rapid movement of shock troops © to exploit breakthroughs. Unfortunately, the British did not learn from their Russian allies. » On July 1, General Douglas Haig by the German fleet and sent a far i superior naval force to attack it. German Admiral Reinhard Scheer (1863-1928] was caught by surprise, but British Admiral John Jellicoe (1859-1935) failed to profit from the advantage. The German warships were able to make a fighting withdrawal to port, while inflicting heavier losses than they suffered. Despite a disappointing performance, the Royal Navy had confirmed its superiority—it was the German fleet that had retreated. In June, General Aleksei Brusilov [1853-1926] mounted he GENERAL DOUGLAS HAIG (1861-1928) Cavalry officer Douglas Haig performed well as a corps commander in the first year of World War I. As British army commander-in-chief, his assaults on German defenses at the Somme in 1916 and Passchendaele in 1917 resulted in huge losses. In 1918, Haig held firm in the face of the formidable German spring offensives, then presided over a string of British victories. o ~ We oe Ras s. o / are ) oP os veo? 3 ar oe st S ele os J we’ os oo a oye ess , cK cS abe oot x o® sak whee nS wv Rr ‘ ee wh wee a ° oo os 3° oo rs wh K Ps ole” $ corre $e so ic) a & Or ot ee Dist SF GO ow Moet y ack cory oT pew eer g™ v ow ve’ pris? Ar ys p7® 0 Qo 7 ee oe! 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British troops marched forward in lines, because the generals believed their conscripted troops were incapable of executing more intelligent tactics, and were mown : down by German machine guns. Almost 20,000 men were killed, the heaviest losses ever experienced by the British army ina single day's fighting. Haig kept the men fighting for five months, introducing tanks as soon as this new weapon was available, and allowing his : subordinates to experiment with varied tactics including : night attacks. But there was no breakthrough, and the only result was attrition—a gradual wearing down of the armies. By the second half of 1916, the strain of two years of warfare had left countries with the option of either ratcheting up their war : effort or seeking a path to peace. In August, Germany changed its leadership. General Paul von Hindenburg (1847-1934) and his Cece H es French soldiers arriving at Verdun in eastern Fra! : | -” at the front was eight days—all a man could be expected to stand. 600 450 wo i=) So CASUALTIES (IN THOUSANDS) a So ° British French German Casualties of the Somme offensive The Somme was one of the bloodiest battles of the war. Between July 1 and November 18 over a million men were killed or wounded. Quartermaster-General Erich Ludendorff (1865-1937) were given supreme command of the German army and control of the entire German war effort. In order : to wring every drop of productivity out of German industry, they created a state-directed economy that has been dubbed “war socialism.” By contrast, their Austrian allies were losing their will to fight. The death of Emperor = Franz Josef | (1830-1914) in November marked the beginning of the end of the Austrian Empire. His successor, Charles | (1887-1922), was desperate fora way out of the war. The collective madness of the art movement that gave itself the nonsense name Dada. Dadaists such as Hugo Ball and Hans Arp gathered at the Cabaret Voltaire in Zurich, in neutral Switzerland, and advocated a crazy antiart that satirized a world afflicted by mass slaughter. Their anarchic works rejected the social order that legitimized war. Amore rational spokesman for peace was President Woodrow Wilson, elected for asecond term of office in November. As the man who had kept the US out of the European war, Wilson put himself forward as a peacemaker. He issued a “peace note” that called on combatant countries to Going over the top British soldiers prepare to attack during the Battle of the Somme, leaving the relative shelter of the nce. The standard tour of duty battlefield provoked an influential : a © Performing artists Leading Dada artist Hugo Ball : performing at Cabaret Voltaire, | which he founded in 1916. Dadaists | protested against the war. ' state their war aims as a prelude » to ceasefire negotiations. : Germany's civilian government : came up with its own “peace © offer,” but the country’s military : leaders would not permit any of : the concessions that might have : made peace a practical possibility. | The Russian Empire was | desperate for an end to the © fighting, and its czarist regime : was leaking popular support. : In December, court conspirators : assassinated Grigori Rasputin © (1869-1916), an hirsute “holy : man” whose hold over the czar's : wife had become a public scandal. | The assassination was widely : welcomed, but it could not halt © the czarist government's slide trench for exposed ground. : toward collapse. fp is 2 Zi so we a A Sf e os We we oe? ) sP ne @ 2 3 oF 40 : & s DM oo co veo CW ok on! & ery roe oF of S oy yy co s sc ey < B ack gb od ere ee ge agin’ e* Row oe o Ss x) 2 \ \ OF 2 a yor eg™ <2 5 yo aoe rsh ws a SES OP SE ee tow Mt se pete £ a \ : oo oon eran AY oe ook © WR se Ee oh ye? 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Lk Sie nC cae we re of Soe 0% oo ve Soe ad? co ye*™ ro? ye? ev x OE oe WV oe ok a oe SS WOM Ae st “ce Of pr & © et x s Pod 6 ot ag tae .) ¥ os oo as) & x 352 Wee 464 | HOPE WE MAY ALL SAY THAT THUS, THIS FATEFUL MORNING, CAME TO AN END ALL WARS. 99 David Lloyd George, British Prime Minister, November 11, 1918 their German enemies—a German reference to the Marines as “Devil Dogs” stuck asa nickname for the Corps The turning point was an attack at Amiens on August 8, spearheaded by Australian and Canadian infantry, and supported by massed British and French tanks. Described by the German general Erich Ludendorff (1865-1937) as “the black day of the German army,” it initiated the “Hundred Days” of relentless Allied offensives, with large-scale use of tanks and aircraft. In September, Pershing achieved his ambition of commanding an independent US operation—the capture of the St. Mihiel salient. This was followed by a combined American and French offensive in the Argonne forest, the costliest single battle in American history, with 117,000 US casualties. On September 29, with their Hindenburg Line defenses breached and their ally Bulgaria on the point of surrender, the Germans sought an armistice. They approached President Wilson (1856-1924), hoping to make a deal with the US, but Wilson aligned himself with the British and French, who insisted that Germany should surrender. Although German troops were still putting up a stubborn defense, and there were not yet any Allied troops on German soil, the country was disintegrating from within. A mutiny in the German navy at the end of October was followed by strikes and socialist uprisings in major cities, where food shortages had fueled political discontent. Germany's main allies, Turkey and Austria-Hungary, stopped fighting. On November 9, the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann declared Germany a republic, and Kaiser Wilhelm II (1859-1941) fled to the Netherlands. Two days later, a German delegation signed an armistice in a railroad car in the Compiégne forest. The guns fell silent at 11 a.m. on November 11. British soldiers, an American sailor, and a Red Cross nurse celebrate the signing of the armistice on November 11, ending four years of mass slaughter. PEOPLE DIED IN THE FLU PANDEMIC OF 1918-19 Peace celebrations erupted in London, Paris, and other Allied cities, but even in the victor nations the reaction was muted by the memory of the millions who had died. There were no celebrations in the collapsed empires destroyed by the conflict— Germany, Austria, Russia, and Turkey—which faced an uncertain future amid political turmoil. Meanwhile, a global pandemic of “Spanish Flu” was at its peak. One of the worst natural disasters in human history, 15 T roop numbers p the spread of the disease was and deaths bablyaided:by | \ 12 Around 65 million BrOREiy UGE Py ater seals a men fought in movements of troops and by the FS World War |, of weakened immune systems =k) whom 8.5 million of populations suffering from 2 = died. Germany malnutrition. 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OR xo < RY 3 ce sod 9, Nar aOR rience att a oeteoal FoR a AF ee, Wee oh” a Cor? Se Oe FS CRA, Hc? a OF Se CS 3 Qe Or SSP? o® s oe So 0 7 ww < - ge? o? EHO go™ sg er oY et a OE ge? sO Je FPP ag EF AAT pot ash odh™ gah eds shes oe cae eg™ se ey pF yor otro _cet gt Oo co Moke ge e IF 6? rye ys fp Cee aaens Oe eo 32> 0? pF" oP ys ee Ae ol ok "ee 92 psoas cee gute oe eee oe ee x? x Pho “a oe eS aa ye eo oe on a ~ MET oat 8 FS x . 8 Ss Ors EC oP cS) fr Mee? ga ae goon c® a see roe & ‘ oo 9? PF = RS Rea RX. 3 ores a4 Me s est om 353 1914-2011 | TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS Rifle with bayonet retractable ITALY bayonet Bolt-action M91 Carcano rifles and carbines armed the Italian infantry in World War |. This carbine has its bayonet fixed, for use in trench fighting in close quarters. drum-pan magazine stores ammunition Lewis gun BRITAIN antiseptics and list of contents Originally an American painkillers of pouch design, the Lewis gun was adopted by the British Army as its standard light machine gun in 1915, It armed aircraft P and tanks, as well as infantry. steel water jacket cools gun barrel First-aid pouch Maxim machine gun GERMANY GERMANY German medical orderlies The German Army's heavy machine carried a pouch containing basic gun, the Maschinengewehr ‘08, was painkillers and antiseptics, such derived from the gun invented by as iodine, to treat wounded men American Hiram Maxim in 1884. before they were sent to It could fire 400 rounds a minute. dressing stations. leather WORLD WAR | : MASS-PRODUCED WEAPONRY ALLOWS THE SLAUGHTER OF MILLIONS World War I has been described as “industrial warfare” as manpower and economic resources of industrialized states were mobilized for fighting. Modern firearms provided armies with firepower on an unprecedented scale. Formidable defensive systems of trenches, barbed wire, and machine-gun posts made offensive operations costly and tended to lead to stalemate. Weapons used in trench warfare ranged from grenades and flamethrowers to homemade clubs and knives. From 1916, the first slow and unreliable tanks made their appearance. Aircraft added anew dimension to warfare, carrying out reconnaissance and bombing, and strafing ground targets. wheeled gun carriage Artillery shells FRANCE Artillery ammunition in World War | ranged from shrapnel to high-explosive and gas shells. These shells were fired by the French 75-mm field gun. Howitzer BRITAIN Howitzers such as this 6-inch British gun were effective in trench warfare because they launched a shell ona high trajectory, dropping onto the concealed enemy. 354 Officer’s compass BRITAIN A compass was vital on a night patrol or raid. Without it, soldiers could lose their way in the no man’s land between the trenches, rendered featureless by shelling — mother-of-pearl face catches the light _ adjustable eye pieces Stereoscopic periscope GERMANY Soldiers in trenches used periscopes to keep watch on the enemy line. Snipers quickly picked off men who exposed their heads above the parapet. screw-on metal filter canister WORLD WAR | handset wooden box Field telephone GERMANY Although radios were also used, field telephones were the main communications link in trench warfare. Where telephone cables had been ripped up by shelling, runners carried messages to the front line by hand. Gas mask GERMANY Effective masks were developed that protected the eyes and face from contact with poison gas and, through a filter respirator, neutralized the gas for breathing. steel canister Desert shoes BRITAIN British troops fighting against the Turks in the Palestine campaign sometimes wore wire sand shoes over their army boots to facilitate marching on desert sands. Folding shovel ITALY For an infantryman, a shovel was essential equipment, needed to dig trenches or temporary shelters. This folding shovel was used by Italian alpine troops. TURKEY Turkish bayonet and grenade Nail club BRITAIN Primitive wooden clubs, with nails or other metal objects at the striking end, were used by soldiers on both sides asa silent, deadly weapon in trench raids. The Turkish Army in World War | had some obsolete equipment, such as swords and bayonets, but also state-of-the-art German-supplied weaponry such as fragmentation grenades. s leather balaclava leather face mask Aviator’s headgear BRITAIN Flying in open-cockpit aircraft, many aviators in World War | wore leather balaclavas and face masks to protect themselves against the cold and wind. barrel could fire _— 1-pound shell leather skull cap Anti-aircraft gun BRITAIN Armies adapted existing guns, firing time-fused explosive shells for air defense. This British “pom-pom” gun, mounted on a pedestal, was used in defense of London against air attack. Tank helmet BRITAIN British tank crews found that when bullets struck their armored vehicle, metal shards flew inside the hull. Helmets protecting the head and face were swiftly adopted to limit injuries. ee rivetehanges direction and angle of gun SoD) The “Big Four”—David Lloyd George, Vittorio Orlando, Georges Clemenceau, and Woodrow Wilson—meet amiably at the Paris Peace Conference. IN JANUARY 1919, LEADERS OF THE VICTOR COUNTRIES FROM WORLD WAR I met for a peace conference in Paris. US President Woodrow Wilson’s liberal idealism was the focus for popular hopes that a new and better world would be built on the ruins of the old. Wilson was one of the “Big Four’ who dominated the proceedings in Paris, the others being French prime minister Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929), British prime minister David Lloyd George (1863-1945], and Italian prime minister Vittorio Orlando (1860-1952). Each European leader had his own agenda, inevitably dominated by issues of national self-interest. Wilson's idealism expressed itself in an agreement to create a League of Nations, which was to provide “collective security” against Russian Red Army cap badge The hammer-and-plow insignia from the Civil War period symbolizes the union of industrial workers and peasants in the revolutionary cause. area lost to area lost Denmark to France area lost to Poland sw g/t ne German loss of territory After World War |, Germany lost 13 percent of its territory. Most went to the newstate of Poland, while France regained Alsace-Lorraine. aggression and replace war with negotiated settlement of disputes, but Clemenceau believed the best guarantee for the future peace of France was in a permanent weakening of Germany. Defeat in war had reduced Germany to a state of economic and social collapse. In January, communist revolutionaries, known as the Spartacists, tried to imitate the success of the Bolsheviks in Russia [see 1917] by staging an " uprising in Berlin. The attempted revolution was crushed by the army and right-wing paramilitary Freikorps; the two most prominent Spartacist leaders, Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxembourg, were captured and © killed. In February, an elected assembly, sitting in the city of Weimar, set about drawing up a constitution for an impeccably : the newstate of Poland, : and Alsace-Lorraine, : and leadership skills were : democratic republic, but on the streets of Germany extremism : of right and left continued to flourish. In the southern German state of Bavaria, communists proclaimed a Soviet regime in April, only to be crushed by the army and Freikorps in May. With Germany in no position to resume hostilities, the victorious Allies were able to impose peace terms in the Versailles Treaty without negotiation. Germany lost allits colonies and substantial territory in Europe. The European territorial loss consisted largely of areas needed to form which Germany had taken from France during the Franco- Prussian War [see 1870). Tight restrictions were placed on German armed forces and the Rhineland was demilitarized. The Germans were also required to make reparations payments, which were justified by the assertion that Germany had been guilty of starting the war. The “war guilt” clause Revolutionary leader Trotsky’s organizational essential to Bolshevik success in Russia. He is seen here addressing troops of the Red Army. outraged Germans more than any other part of the treaty. The crew of the German High Seas Fleet— interned since the armistice at Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands north of Scotland—scuttled their vessels as an act of defiance. But left with no choice, German delegates signed the treaty in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles on June 28. While peace was being formalized in Western Europe, civil war raged in Russia, as Lenin's Bolshevik government fought for survival against various “White” counter-revolutionary armies. The Whites had the backing of foreign powers, who landed intervention forces at ports around Russia—US and Japanese at Vladivostok, French at Odessa, and British at Murmansk and Arkhangelsk—but these foreign interventions were half-hearted and mostly short-lived. The Bolshevik People’s Commissar for War, Leon Trotsky (1879-1940), created a mass Red Army by conscripting peasants at gunpoint and subjecting them to harsh discipline. Fighting between the 46 WE'VE HAD A TERRIBLE VOYAGE... THE WONDER IS WE ARE HERE AT ALL. 99 John Alcock, officer in the British RAF, after flying nonstop across the Atlantic, June 15, 1919 Red and White armies was vicious, and accompanied by massacres and atrocities on avast scale. In the midst of this mayhem, Russia hosted a congress in Moscow to found the Third International, known as Comintern. Its aim was to promote the spread of communist revolution worldwide; its effect was to split the international socialist movement, forcing people on the political left to choose between social democracy and revolutionary communism. The vision of an imminent world revolution had some credibility at a time when radical workers’ and anti-colonial movements were challenging the established authority in many countries. Outside Russia, it was only in Hungary that communists established a national government in 1919. The collapse of the Austro- Hungarian Empire was a disaster ) for Hungary, which faced the loss of two-thirds of its prewar territory to Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia. The communist Bela Kun [1886- 1938) took power in March, launching military offensives against Czechoslovakia and Romania. He followed the Bolshevik example by forming a Red Army and exercising a reign of terror against his opponents, but after 133 days in power he was defeated by the Romanians. Admiral Miklos Horthy’s counter-revolutionary National Army marched into Budapest to suppress the communists with another reign of terror. In 1920, Horthy took power in Hungary as “Regent.” In Italy, people of all political persuasions were disgusted with their country’s limited share in : the spoils of victory. Orlando was forced to resign as prime minister on his return from the Paris Peace nonstop transatlantic flight from Newfoundland in Canada to Ireland. Conference, after failing to secure either Dalmatia or the port of Fiume (Rijeka) for Italy. In September, Gabriele D'Annunzio (1863-1938], a flamboyant right-wing nationalist poet and aviator, seized Fiume with a band of armed followers. He held the port-city, ruling as dictator of the Regency of Carnaro, until he was driven out by the Italian Navy after a peace deal between Italy and Yugoslavia in November 1920, which made Fiume a Free State. Meanwhile, Britain was facing opposition to its rule in India. The British were committed to a promise made during World War | to grant the Indians a measure of self-government, but they suspended civil liberties in a crackdown on what were described as “anarchical and revolutionary crimes.” On April 13, British officer General Reginald Dyer (1864-1927] ordered troops to fire on an unarmed crowd of protestors at the Jallianwalla Bagh, a public § Italians enter Fiume >) Gabriele DAnnunzio’s nationalist legionnaires salute the flag of the short-lived Regency of Carnaro in Fiume, now the Croatian city of Rijeka. garden in Amritsar, Punjab. At least 379 people were killed. Although the British government condemned the killings and dismissed General Dyer, the Amritsar massacre caused widespread outrage in India and increased pressure for independence. Despite the world’s troubles, technological and scientific progress continued. On June 14, British pilot Captain John Alcock (1892-1919) and his navigator Lieutenant Arthur Whitten Brown (1886-1948) took off from St. John’s, Newfoundland, to attempt the first nonstop flight across the Atlantic. After a perilous 16 hours 27 minutes, their Vickers Vimy bomber aircraft landed nose-down ina bog in Galway, Ireland. Their feat won them a hero's welcome in London, but Alcock’s triumph was short-lived, as he was killed in an air crash just six months later. At the time when Alcock and Brown made their famous flight, British scientists were analyzing the results of an expedition sent to the African island of Principe to observe a solar eclipse. The OO John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown in the plane they flew on the first : expedition was intended to test : the vali ity of the General Theory of Relativity, a revolutionary = concept in physics formulated during World War | by Albert : Einstein (1879-1955). In | September it was announced that the observations did indeed : confirm Einstein's theory, fundamentally changing the : Notions of time and space that : had underpinned Isaac Newton's : view of the universe. _ ALBERT EINSTEIN (1879-1955) Einstein was born to Jewish parents in southern Germany. In 1905, he published his Special Theory of Relativity, which was followed by the General Theory of Relativity in 1915. His theories revolutionized understanding of the relationship between time, space, matter, and energy. From the 1920s Einstein was féted worldwide, but chose exile in the US, away from Hitler's Germany. 2° R e o «i . xe sro® s ao? os pe gs? ier oye 30° oe vs eee a> Ror. a9! oO ou oF ool Sto" eo ek e* dP ne’ ee Or . N 2 8% 2? CS SF MS @ an er ge ye? 00 — ES 6 Ve 5 x os 2 Sy ae oF Ss : LG oe ye yw oe io ge w *_ Ke ed OP WO ys oY ot gt oot ye’ Se” pe co 3 oe ed ef “aot oe we as’ oe RSA ee ? NO 52" 2 WS” 9% 8° 0 sh P SS CaaS) pF gPav® at at NS SO Neh oe os ASE Adah oo 0% 5% ts wes PF? @ 3 yo : gy Ri cS ys cd 4" NS oe Ky 0% o s J og os oe 5 = eS rere oo o® Mor oe BF ge Meg we’ Fw oF a ROK % oo cS BX 4 & < ae ye SS x oo sf S 2 & s ¥ 3 we ce ie ia i@ 7 a 4 r rd 2 a & oe os \? o ¥ et oe oo & ae? oF a6 ss > SF 52 oN eed ae oF er ee o Sno < a & oo 32" yo" Oro oO caer Sore Foe FSO ge io er oe? 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Led by General THE TURMOIL that had followed : Cattle, sheep, and horses to : Bolshevik authority over Ukraine Jozef Pitsudski (1867-1935), defeat in World War | (see 1919). France and Belgium : and Belarus brought the Red the Poles mounted a counter- In March, units of the nationalist. = Farther east, war continued to | Army into conflict with the Poles. offensive outside Warsaw that paramilitary Freikorps occupied rage. The Bolsheviks triumphed After some early success against crushed the Red Army. Lenin regime had collapsed. hero of Gallipoli (see The Weimar government 1915], headeda reluctantly engaged in talks nationalist parliament with the victorious Allies over in opposition to the implementation of the sultan and began a war Versailles peace treaty (see to win control of what 1919). Germany began disbanding he regarded as Turkish much of its armed forces and national territory—much paying war reparations in kind, of which had been given through deliveries of coal to to Greece by the Allies. The year saw the beginning of prohibition in the US. The 18th Amendment to the Berlin and declared the Weimar | over the White generals in the : Polish forces, the Red Army (see 1917] was forced toendthe | Republic overthrown. As H war on Polish terms. i conservative politician Wolfgang More Easy Voney 1 Clever Crook Story—1n this lasue The terms imposedon Kapp attempted to form a H == li. 1900 . Price—I5 Cents the Ottoman sultan by H government, Weimar ministers September 1, Sitecripien Prive Ws yee the victorious Allies in called fora nationwide general = the Treaty of Sevres strike to resist the Freikorps ‘ meant breaking up the : “putsch.” Workers walked out, H Turkish empire. In April, — factories and transport shut : General Mustafa Kemal ; down, and within days the Kapp (1881-1938), the Turkish 5% 3% Serbia | Others Polish Cross of Valor pane This military decoration was Constitution banned the introduced by Poland during the war 8% manufacture and sale with Bolshevik Russia in 1920 to Belgium of “intoxicating liquors,” | recognize Polish deeds of heroism. a move that had little H 10% influence on alcohol | Amendment, ratified in August, Italy consumption, but guaranteed American women provided a massive boost : the vote on equal terms with men. to organized crime. The : The US did not take part in more momentous 19th : the initiation of the League : of Nations. This international body—dedicated to the peaceful i resolution of disputes and This magazine cover * theicellactive dat f celebrates the passing ane ce) ee eee ence AD s laf the 49th amnendmentto aggression—was the brainchild the US Constitution, which of American president Woodrow gave women voting rights. Wilson, but the US Congress 22% 52% Britain France Victory for suffrage Dividing up reparations The Allies agreed to divide up German reparations payments after a complex calculation of the losses they had suffered during World War |. : 4 e? 2 eo ve & Sa ae < Rs 0? og sv Co aS SP se 4 ge ws Done oo os mo) ww oF ce?" 9 ware oo © gr ee? yotiott et ws Fe Xo 4 Dike ° Fe bo eee nek wor or 9 do s et ar) CS yo oe 2 2 oo wh . OF ys 47 0 BS PAT HM yd? 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French mandate area British mandate area Former territories of the Ottoman Empire were divided between Britain and France, an arrangement legalized by League of Nations mandates. In accordance with the Balfour Declaration (see 1917], Britain had agreed to allow Jewish settlement in Palestine, but had also given wartime promises to the Arabs. In 1922, it divided its Palestinian mandate territory along the line of the Jordan River. Jewish settlement was allowed to the west, and to the east Transjordan would remain purely Arab land. A more positive side effect : of the British presence in Egypt : was the discovery by British archaeologists of the tomb of | Tutankhamun. The Earl of © Carnavon [1866-1923] and : Egyptologist Howard Carter © (1874-1939) entered the tomb : to find unparalleled treasure, i including a gold face mask was committed to allowing, led to that the British could not control. In another former Ottoman determined nationalist opposition 44 ...ONE SHOULD BE FREE TO GIVE THE FULLEST EXPRESSION TO HIS DISAFFECTION SO LONG AS HE DOES NOT CONTEMPLATE, PROMOTE, OR INCITE VIOLENCE. 99 Mohandas Gandhi, in a statement during his trial, March 18, 1922 In India, nationalist opposition to British rule had found a leader in Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948). | Winning the support of the peasant masses for the Indian National Congress independence movement, he organized a nationwide campaign of civil disobedience, including a boycott of British goods. Although Gandhi advocated strict nonviolence, his campaign generated widespread disturbances, including the massacre of 23 police officers at Chauri Chaura in February. Gandhi was arrested by the British authorities in March and sentenced to six years prison, of which he served only two. Implementation of the Anglo- Irish Treaty in southern Ireland (see 1921) led to a vicious civil war. Michael Collins (1890-1922), head of a provisional Irish Free State government in Dublin, was opposed by anti-Treaty republicans. In April, the Irish 1,000,000 KEY Jews @ Muslims @ Christians 800,000 600,000 POPULATION 400,000 200,000 : Republican Army (IRA} occupied » Dublin's Four Courts building. After a lengthy standoff, in June ® Collins used artillery loaned by : Britain to bombard the Four © Courts, and retake the building. : On August 22, Collins was killed _ in an ambush ona country road : in County Cork. More numerous : and better armed, the Free : State troops had crushed most : opposition by the time the treaty : came into effect on December 6. The Protestant northern province i of Ulster remained part of the : United Kingdom. In Turkey, nationalists led : by Mustafa Kemal (1881-1938) : were at war with Greece, which : aspired to create a “Greater » Greece” including Constantinople : and much of western Anatolia. © In August, a Turkish offensive at | Dumlupinar drove the Greeks | into retreat. The predominantly : Greek city of Smyrna [Izmir] was ©» occupied by pursuing Turkish Benito Mussolini mingles with his Fascist Blackshirt paramilitaries in Rome after being appointed prime minister by the Italian king in October. forces and devastated by fire. Britain contemplated intervening against the Turks, but in an armistice agreed to at Mudanya in October both the European powers and Greece accepted the Turkish military victory. Under the agreed to peace terms there was a large-scale exchange of people, with over a million Greeks expelled from Turkey and half a million Turks forced to leave Greece. Abandoned Greek villages in western Turkey still bear witness to this human tragedy. The Republic of Turkey was founded the following year, with Mustafa Kemalas its first president. 1922 was the year when Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) achieved : power in Italy. Since the end of : World War |, Italy's ruling class : had been intimidated by waves of militant action, with socialist workers occupying factories : and peasants taking over large : estates. In this troubled situation, : Mussolini founded the fasci di combattimento, a nationalist : militia that attacked socialists and seized power by force in : some Italian towns. In October, : Mussolini threatened to lead his : Fascist followers in a “March on Rome” unless he was made head © of government. Italy's king, Victor Emmanuel Ill (1869-19471, : eventually gave in and Mussolini © assumed office as prime minister. Once in control, Mussolini began dismantling Italy's system of parliamentary democracy. As Mussolini was muscling his way to power, the first national radio broadcasting company was being established in Britain. Like the early radio stations that were starting up in the US, the British Broadcasting Company (later Corporation) was financed by manufacturers of radio sets, eager to create a market for their products. And it worked; by March 1923, daily broadcasts of concerts, news, and talks had attracted 125,000 people to buy licenses from the Post Office for their “wirelesses.” The US would not have a major broadcasting network until the formation of Benito Mussolini, October 24, 1922 the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) in 1926. New modernist trends in literature were prominent in 1922. Irish writer James Joyce's novel Ulysses, published in Paris in February, broke all literary conventions, but its language and subject matter ensured that it was banned as obscene in countries with tighter censorship rules than France. The more decorous American expatriate poet T.S. Eliot caused a sensation with his long and obscure poem The Waste Land, which came with notes to help the reader follow its numerous literary allusions. Experimentation was also rife in the movies, from German director F. W. Murnau’s expressionist horror movie Nosferatu to American filmmaker Robert Flaherty’s groundbreaking documentary Nanook of the North. Russia was entering a period of relative tranquillity, after the upheavals of revolution and civil war. At the year’s end the former Russian Empire was reconstituted as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics “Father of the Turks” Mustafa Kemal, the founder of the Turkish Republic, talks with camel drivers during the Turko-Greek War. He later took the name Ataturk. Early airwaves : Early radio sets were often 46 EITHER THE GOVERNMENT WILL BE GIVEN TO US OR WE SHALL SEIZE IT BY MARCHING ON ROM! Gd impressive-looking pieces of equipment. This one, from 1925, has an unusual, star-shaped antenna. (USSR), but by then the founder of : the world’s first communist state, » Vladimir Lenin (see 1917) had been disabled by a stroke. Despite this, he dictated a document, later known as “Lenin's Testament,” : that was critical of several of his colleagues. In particular, it » warned against the rudeness : and intolerance of Joseph Stalin : [1978-1953], newly installed as the Soviet Communist Party's General Secretary, and proposed : that he be removed from his post. After Lenin's death, * knowledge of the document was restricted to a communist inner 5 circle, and action against Stalin : Was never taken. we s -. ai o& ss ie ee? Pe SS ao eS) row Pree? —_ gg oeolh he ¢ Oe: RRC ORs ge vos Bs exe BS rt oe™ OG cee ete”, aS ye” Ss 8 es etd S = © o ad “4 & -, e v ‘2 oe $ J ae) of Sas oe 3 Se oe Se oP oh SP esi CRC Oe SAF Esk Cay cd os PS » We oe Oo ws gH 0% oe ot se re 0 or oe aS y & Ss eo os ~ 361 ah ag Officers of Spain’s Guardia Civil stand by debris from a bomb explosion in Barcelona during the disturbances preceding the seizure of power by de Rivera. IN 1922, THE GERMAN GOVERNMENT had declared itself unable to pay war reparations, which were due to the victorious Allies in gold Marks. The French, led by fiercely anti-German prime minister Raymond Poincaré (1860-1934), were determined to take action. In January 1923, French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr, Germany's industrial heartland. The German government responded by encouraging passive resistance— strikes stopped production in mines and factories. The occupation triggered hyperinflation, and a collapse in the value of the German Mark. Inflation was already out of control before the Franco-Belgian occupation, but the German : government's decision to print banknotes to pay striking Ruhr workers was fatal. By the summer, the Mark was almost worthless. : The exchange rate against the US | dollar rose hourly, and eventually © reached 5.72 trillion Marks to the » dollar. By the time inflation © peaked, savings of 68,000 Marks : would buy no more thana postage : stamp. In contrast, those who owed money had their debts - eradicated. In August, Gustav » Stresemann (1878-1929), a : respected German politician, : formed a coalition government, - and the following month called off i passive resistance in the Ruhr. In The chaotic state of Germany : tempted a minor political : extremist, Adolf Hitler (see : panel, right), to make a bid for power in the Munich Putsch Worthless paper money The collapse of the German currency resulted in the printing of 500 million Mark notes, Smaller notes were so worthless they were 44 WE HAVE REASON ON OUR SIDE AND, THEREFORE, FORCE, THOUGH SO FAR WE HAVE USED FORCE WITH MODERATION. 99 Miguel Primo de Rivera, Spanish dictator, September 1923 VALUE OF THE MARK AGAINST THE US DOLLAR : 10,000,000,000,000 10,000,000,000 1,000,000,000 100,000,000 10,000,000 1,000,000 100,000 10,000 1,000 100 10 0 Mar 1922 Jan 1922 German hyperinflation : The value of the Mark against the US November, the Mark was replaced : : by the Rentenmark, knocking | 12 zeros off the old currency and i restoring public confidence dollar reflects the acceleration of © German inflation. Ten years earlier : a dollar had been worth 2.3 Marks. » on November 8-9. Hitler had : made himself leader of the : Nationalist Socialist Party : (Nazis). He had also won : powerful allies, including war : hero General Erich Ludendorff (1865-1937). Hitler planned : to use the Bavarian capital, : Munich, as the base fora | “March on Berlin’ in imitation | of Mussolini's “March on Rome” ' [see 1922]. But, at the last : moment, Bavarian leaders opposed the putsch. Hitler : and Ludendorff were confronted » by the army and police on the | streets of Munich. After a brief : gunfight, the attempted revolt » disintegrated. Hitler was arrested two days later and : charged with high treason Aug 1922 y 1,000,000,000,000- KEY Pa Exchange rate of Pa 100,000,000,000 #RS German Mate r, Dec 1922 Jan Dec 1923 While Hitler's attempted coup failed, in Spain General Primo de Rivera (1870-1930) succeeded in seizing power. In the aftermath of the Spanish defeat by Abd el-Krim’s Berbers at Annual (see 1921], the Spanish : parliament had launched an : investigation into the army and Spain's King Alfonso XIII (1886- 1941] to apportion blame. Primo de Rivera dismissed parliament and established a military dictatorship under the king. Sadly, his desire to end Spain's economic problems and bitter political divisions proved far beyond his power or ability. A more successful military man : was Turkey's Mustafa Kemal (1881-1938}, later known as : Ataturk. Victorious in the war | against Greece |see 1922), Kemal formally founded the Turkish Republic in October. He embarked upon a series of radical 1923 | ADOLF HITLER {1889-1945} Born in Austria, Hitler fought in the German army in World War |. An inspired orator, he won mass support for his National Socialist (Nazi) Party from the late 1920s. From 1933, he established a ruthless dictatorship that resulted in the Holocaust (see 1942]. His expansionist policies caused a war in 1939 that finally led to the destruction of his Reich. into a modern secular state. : He banned traditional dress, i abolished the Muslim caliphate | system of government, and | replaced Arabic script with the : Roman alphabet. In Japan, one of the worst : natural disasters of the century : struck on September 1. Known : as the Great Kanto earthquake, » a tremor measuring 7.9 on the : Richter scale devastated Tokyo : and the surrounding area. The : quake started fires that were use to light stoves. : (see 1924). reforms designed to turn Turkey whipped up by high winds into dx se ss Sass RS 9 e < Crs of cS eo 9% ai! Ss & 8 ia A oc PONE ae an gd Or oe og res BP oe ROR io ae sete ww eee Oe s oe Se = vossaitee os on ea poo ae ee SS tee od nck 3 es rn 8 RS e rd FS oy! Cee We ook og 6° 35 FO FOS sF KO Ooo OT OF RN. be oF OM og! 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In the 19th century, engineers calculated the forces involved in winged flight and experimented with gliders, but it was the arrival of gasoline engines that made powered flight practicable. Side view wing with anhedral __/ angle (pointing downward at back) — chain propeller ZL \__ wooden ribs mechanism = covered in muslin Zeppelin airship 1903 1783 Hot-air balloon French brothers Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier complete the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon. Montgolfier balloon c. 1485-1510 Leonardo's flying machine Early concepts of human flight, like those sketched by Leonardo da Vinci, are based on bird flight but are technically impractical. Da Vinci's ornithopter 1900 First Zeppelin flight On July 2, German pioneer Ferdinand von Zeppelin’s LZ-1 successfully takes to the skies. 1852 First powered flight Frenchman Henri Giffard attaches a steam engine to a balloon filled with coal gas; powered flight begins. Nat Giffard’s airship The Wright Flyer On December 17, the Wright brothers complete the first sustained, controlled flight in a powered, heavier-than-air machine at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, US. 1909 Long-distance flight On July 25, Frenchman Louis Blériot flies across the English Channel from France to England. Louis Blériot 1919 Airlines progress The first scheduled international passenger air service is inaugurated between London and Paris; the first airlines are set up. 1914 Aircraftin warfare Use of aircraft for combat transforms aviation; tens of thousands of aircraft are mass-produced for the first time. THE STORY OF FLIGHT 44 WE COULD NOT UNDERSTAND THAT THERE WAS ANYTHING ABOUT A BIRD THAT COULD NOT BE BUILT ON A LARGER SCALE. 99 Orville Wright (1873-1948), American aviation pioneer American brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first viable powered winged aircraft by attaching an engine to a glider in 1903. They solved the problem of controlling an aircraft in flight and by 1905 had a machine that would stay airborne untilits fuel ran out. In the beginning, airships outperformed winged aircraft, but they were slow and fatally accident-prone. Successors to the landing skids Sikorsky VS-300 1930s Helicopters evolve The first helicopters are developed by Louis Breguet in France, the Focke-Wulf company in Germany, and Igor Sikorski in the US. 1927 First non-stop transatlantic flight On May 20-21, American Charles Lindbergh flies solo, non-stop from New York to Paris in a single- engine monoplane. 1935 Air travel Spirit of St. Louis Englishman Frank Whittle invents the first jet engine. The first jet-propelled aircraft, the Heinkel He 178, makes successful test flight. becomes cheaper The Douglas DC-3 passenger aircraft makes flight cheaper and more viable. Wright brothers showed that winged aircraft had astounding potential for increase in size, range, and speed. By the 1930s, high-performance aircraft could exceed 400mph (640kph], while the development of flying instruments improved safety. Long-distance flying feats made pilots heroes in the 1920s and 1930s. But, by the 1940s, the same flights were available to paying uniquely designed propeller blades forward elevators 1952 1939 First commercial jet Jet aircraft e The prototype de secs Jf Havilland Comet, the Cee ee ay de Havilland Comet 1947 Supersonic flight American aviator Chuck Yeager becomes the first to pilot the rocket- powered Bell X-1, the first aircraft to break the sound barrier. first commercial jet, takes off. Passenger air travel zooms into the jet age. 1961 Manned spaceflight Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin becomes the first man in space, orbiting the Earth in his Vostok spacecraft. passengers in the comfort of pressurized cabins. Jet engines carried aircraft performance to supersonic speed and altitudes at the edge of space. Rocket technology then propelled humans into space itself. From the 1970s, falling prices turned flight into a worldwide mass transportation system and made it accessible to the majority. Air travel had bridged distances and shrunk the world. A narrow wing made from ash ribs Wright Flyer The Wright brothers’ home-built aircraft, which they used for trial flights in December 1903, had a complex control system with rudders and elevators. 1976 Concorde enters service Concorde, the world’s first supersonic passenger aircraft, enters commercial service. 1981 Reusable space craft The space shuttle Columbia becomes the first shuttle to be launched into Earth's orbit, on April 12. Space shuttle Columbia 44 THE BEST OF AMERICA DRIFTS TO PARIS. 99 F. Scott Fitzgerald, American author PARIS REASSERTED ITS CLAIM as the world leader in taste and style with the International Exhibition of Modern Industrial and Decorative Arts. The exhibition gave a name—Art Deco—to the design trend toward angular shapes, abstract patterns, exuberant African, Aztec, and Egyptian motifs, and materials such as chromium and ivory. Art Deco soon set the style for everything from scent bottles and skyscrapers to ocean liners and movie theaters. Less noticed at the time was a small exhibition of works ina Parisian gallery by artists calling themselves “Surrealists.” The group, which included the Catalan artist Joan Miré [1893-1983] and Surrealist style Harlequin’s Carnival exemplifies the playful, anarchic style developed in the 1920s by Joan Mird, a Spanish Catalan artist living in Paris. 4 Re American dancer and singer Josephine Baker was described by writer Ernest xv ‘ Hemingway as “the most sensational woman anyone ever saw.” : the American Man Ray (1890- 1976), were dedicated to the © exploration of dreams and unconscious impulses to | subvert everyday reality. Over : the following decade Surrealism : was to become a major international art movement. Man Ray was one of a host _ of American expatriates who | flocked to Paris in the mid- : 1920s, lured by the vibrant cultural scene and the favorable exchange rate. American writers based in the city included : Gertrude Stein (1874-1976), | Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961), » and F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896- : 1940), whose classic work The : Great Gatsby was published in 1925. African-American erotic © dancer Josephine Baker © (1906-1975) became a star of © Parisian nightlife, performing at : the Theatre des Champs-Elysées. : For their part, the French took an adoring interest in American jazz. Back in the US, in Dayton, i Tennessee, biology teacher | John Scopes was put ontrial i for teaching Darwin's theory of » evolution. Scopes was backed by : the American Civil Liberties Union : to test Tennessee's newly passed : Butler Act, which had outlawed : the teaching of evolution. © Christian fundamentalists brought in former : US Secretary of State © William Jennings Bryan : to act for the prosecution, : and after atrial that enthralled ' America, Scopes was found i guilty, although the verdict was : later quashed. : The general world political and : economic outlook was better © than at any time since World War I. | In April, Britain’s Chancellor of | the Exchequer, Winston Churchill, » returned his country’s currency to : the prewar Gold Standard. This : set the value of sterling artificially : high, creating problems for British : exporters, but it was an important © gesture toward the restoration of | international financial stability. In December, the Locarno Pact : Was signed. This was a series : of treaties designed to restore | normal peacetime relations © between Germany and the victor © states of World War |. The : agreement depended on the : relationship established between : the German and French foreign : ministers, Gustav Stresemann and Aristide Briand, and opened » the way for Germany's admission : to the League of Nations in 1926. Reza Khan Pahlavi on his throne after being appointed shah of Iran. His aim was to modernize his country along secular Western lines. IN JANUARY 1926, SCOTTISH ENGINEER JOHN LOGIE BAIRD (1888-1946) made the first demonstration of a television transmission in a loft in London's Soho district. Fifty members of the Royal Institution saw the indistinct, but recognizable moving image of a face. In May, Britain experienced its only General Strike. This nationwide industrial stoppage, in support of coal miners, paralyzed transportation networks and docks, and closed down factories revolving disc containing lenses puppet head is filmed The first television camera : Logie Baird gave the first demonstration of television : using a mechanical system with 5 a spinning disk as the scanner. In Iran, another military strongman, Reza Khan Pahlavi _ (1878-1944), established anew © dynasty by crowning himself as shah on April 25; his intention was : to modernize his country. The © Pahlavi dynasty he founded ruled in Iran until the 1970s. and newspapers. The government : responded by mobilizing troops and recruiting volunteers to maintain essential services. After nine days the unions backed down i and ordered a return to work. In Poland, the nation's military hero Marshal Jozef Pilsudski (1867-1935) led a coup d’état in May, in reaction against the unstable parliamentary government. 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